Social Psychology and Human Nature Brief 3rd Edition by Roy F. Baumeister - Test Bank

Social Psychology and Human Nature Brief 3rd Edition by Roy F. Baumeister – Test Bank

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CHAPTER 7—Attitudes, Beliefs, and Consistency

MULTIPLE CHOICE

____ are pieces of information, facts, or opinions; ____ are broad evaluations toward some object or issue.

a.	Attitudes, associations
b.	Associations, beliefs
c.	Attitudes, beliefs
d.	Beliefs, attitudes

ANS: D DIF: Easy

REF: What Are Attitudes and Why Do People Have Them? TYPE: Conceptual

Jerome thinks that it is going to be crowded at the gym today. This is an example of a(n) ____.

a.	dual attitude
b.	belief
c.	implicit attitude
d.	attitude

ANS: B DIF: Easy

REF: What Are Attitudes and Why Do People Have Them? TYPE: Applied

In distinguishing between beliefs and attitudes, it is useful to recognize that beliefs help people ____ while attitudes help people ____.

a.	explain things; make choices
b.	make choices; explain things
c.	rationalize occurrences; explain things
d.	explain things; rationalize occurrences

ANS: A DIF: Moderate

REF: What Are Attitudes and Why Do People Have Them? TYPE: Conceptual

As discussed in the text, ____ serve interpersonal functions.

a.	attitudes but not beliefs
b.	beliefs but not attitudes
c.	both attitudes and beliefs
d.	neither attitudes nor beliefs

ANS: C DIF: Moderate

REF: What Are Attitudes and Why Do People Have Them? TYPE: Factual

As defined in the text, dual attitudes consist of ____.

a.	automatic attitudes and deliberate attitudes
b.	conditioned attitudes and unconditioned attitudes
c.	cognitions and emotions
d.	beliefs and opinions

ANS: A DIF: Easy

REF: What Are Attitudes and Why Do People Have Them? TYPE: Conceptual

Automatic attitudes can be defined as ____ evaluative responses.

a.	controlled, conscious
b.	controlled, unconscious
c.	slow, conscious
d.	fast, unconscious

ANS: D DIF: Moderate

REF: What Are Attitudes and Why Do People Have Them? TYPE: Factual

Zelda says that she likes dogs and that she is not afraid of them. But she gets visibly tense whenever a dog approaches, and refuses to visit any of her dog-owning friends at their homes. It appears that even though she says she likes dogs, Zelda has a negative ____ toward them.

a.	deliberate attitude
b.	automatic attitude
c.	conditioned attitude
d.	unconditioned attitude

ANS: B DIF: Easy

REF: What Are Attitudes and Why Do People Have Them? TYPE: Applied

Which of the following is the best example of a positive deliberate attitude toward snakes?

a.	John doesn’t get tense when he sees snakes.
b.	John would probably watch a TV about snakes .
c.	John says that he adores snakes.
d.	John is reading a book right now about snakes and other reptiles.

ANS: C DIF: Moderate

REF: What Are Attitudes and Why Do People Have Them? TYPE: Applied

Deliberate attitudes can be defined as ____ evaluative responses.

a.	controlled, conscious
b.	controlled, unconscious
c.	automatic, conscious
d.	automatic, unconscious

ANS: A DIF: Difficult

REF: What Are Attitudes and Why Do People Have Them? TYPE: Factual

People often have inconsistent automatic and deliberate attitudes but do not realize it. How is this possible?

a.	People are consciously aware only of their deliberate attitudes.
b.	People are consciously aware only of their automatic attitudes.
c.	People are consciously aware of both their deliberate attitudes and their automatic attitudes, but use them at different times (and hence fail to recognize their inconsistencies).
d.	People are consciously aware of neither their deliberate attitudes nor their automatic attitudes.

ANS: A DIF: Moderate

REF: What Are Attitudes and Why Do People Have Them? TYPE: Conceptual

As discussed in the textbook, people’s deliberate attitudes are not always consistent with their automatic attitudes. This can occur as a result of

a.	self-presentation (people do not always want to share private attitudes).
b.	lack of awareness (people are often unaware of implicit attitudes).
c.	both self-presentation and lack of awareness.
d.	neither self-presentation nor lack of awareness.

ANS: C DIF: Moderate

REF: What Are Attitudes and Why Do People Have Them? TYPE: Conceptual

The Implicit Association Test (“IAT”) is primarily a measure of

a.	automatic attitudes.
b.	deliberate attitudes.
c.	dual attitudes.
d.	conditioned attitudes.

ANS: A DIF: Moderate

REF: What Are Attitudes and Why Do People Have Them? TYPE: Factual

The Implicit Association Test (“IAT”) works by measuring the speed with which people are able to associate different pairs of concepts. According to the logic of the test,

a.	the faster the associations, the stronger the attitudes.
b.	the slower the associations, the stronger the attitudes.
c.	the faster the associations, the more positive the attitudes.
d.	the slower the associations, the more positive the attitudes.

ANS: A DIF: Difficult

REF: What Are Attitudes and Why Do People Have Them? TYPE: Conceptual

The Implicit Association Test (“IAT”) measures automatic attitudes by

a.	measuring the speed with which people associate different concepts to positive or negative stimuli.
b.	asking people to generate as many associations with a given concept as possible within a short time period.
c.	requiring people to sort a large group of words or visual stimuli into as many discrete categories as they see fit.
d.	measuring the time it takes respondents to read stereotype-consistent versus stereotype-inconsistent narratives.

ANS: A DIF: Difficult

REF: What Are Attitudes and Why Do People Have Them? TYPE: Conceptual

Research using the Implicit Association Test (“IAT”) to investigate automatic anti-elderly (pro-younger-people) biases has found that

a.	both younger people and older people are biased against the elderly, but older people are even more biased than younger people.
b.	both younger people and older people are biased against the elderly, but younger people are more biased than older people.
c.	both younger people and older people are (about equally strongly) biased against the elderly.
d.	younger people are biased against the elderly, whereas older people are biased against younger people (and both biases are about equally strong).

ANS: C DIF: Difficult

REF: What Are Attitudes and Why Do People Have Them? TYPE: Factual

Research using the Implicit Association Test (“IAT”) has found that both younger people and older people show a preference for young faces over old faces. The authors of the IAT have suggested that this finding occurs because ____.

a.	the elderly are a stigmatized group
b.	the elderly are a less familiar group (e.g., there are many more young people in the popular media today than old people)
c.	people are evolutionarily “wired” to prefer younger faces to older faces
d.	people do not have well-formed automatic attitudes about the elderly

ANS: A DIF: Difficult

REF: What Are Attitudes and Why Do People Have Them? TYPE: Conceptual

In the U.S., which of the following would NOT be considered a stigmatized group?

a.	Obese people
b.	Married people
c.	Sick people
d.	The elderly

ANS: B DIF: Easy

REF: What Are Attitudes and Why Do People Have Them? TYPE: Applied

One variant of the Implicit Association Test (IAT) measures attitudes toward a single group (e.g., just the elderly). This variant of the IAT is known as the ____.

a.	Personalized IAT
b.	Single Category IAT
c.	Dissonance IAT
d.	One Exposure IAT

ANS: B DIF: Easy

REF: What Are Attitudes and Why Do People Have Them? TYPE: Factual NOTE: New

Which of the following statements about why humans have attitudes is most accurate?

a.	Attitudes are an evolutionary artifact that were useful a long time ago.
b.	Attitudes increase the complexity in making decisions.
c.	Attitudes make it harder for people to adapt and adjust to new situations.
d.	Attitudes aid humans in making decisions and choices.

ANS: D DIF: Difficult

REF: What Are Attitudes and Why Do People Have Them? TYPE: Conceptual

Which if the following is a FALSE statement about attitudes?

a.	Attitudes help guide decision-making processes.
b.	Attitudes help us adjust to new situations.
c.	Attitudes require more than a “gut-level” response.
d.	Attitudes are adaptive.

ANS: C DIF: Easy

REF: What Are Attitudes and Why Do People Have Them? TYPE: Conceptual

Research has shown that there is a difference between how readily bad pictures versus good pictures are recognized by people. At about ____, ____ tend to be recognized more quickly.

a.	3 months; bad pictures
b.	3 months; good pictures
c.	2 1/2 years; bad pictures
d.	2 1/2 years; good pictures

ANS: C DIF: Difficult

REF: What Are Attitudes and Why Do People Have Them? TYPE: Factual

Research suggests that the abstract categories “good” and “bad” are ____.

a.	not actually understood by children until they reach adolescence
b.	not actually understood by children until they reach ages 5-6
c.	understood by children as early as age 2 1/2, if not earlier
d.	understood even by embryos, up to 3 months before birth

ANS: C DIF: Moderate

REF: What Are Attitudes and Why Do People Have Them? TYPE: Factual

Which of the following statements is MOST accurate regarding how people form evaluations of other people and of other stimuli?

a.	People form unconscious, automatic evaluations of other people within the first few microseconds of meeting them; but they do not do this for other stimuli (e.g., nonsense words).
b.	People form unconscious, automatic evaluations of most stimuli (e.g., nonsense words) within the first few microseconds of experiencing them; but they do not do this when meeting new people.
c.	People form unconscious, automatic evaluations of all types of stimuli (e.g., other people, animals, shoes) if they have encountered similar stimuli in the past; but they do not do this when stimuli are highly unfamiliar or unclassifiable.
d.	People form unconscious, automatic evaluations of all types of stimuli, regardless of their familiarity with those stimuli.

ANS: D DIF: Moderate

REF: What Are Attitudes and Why Do People Have Them? TYPE: Conceptual

Suppose that you show your uncle an abstract painting that you have made, and ask for his immediate, unedited reaction. Your uncle says he has no opinion about it. “I am not familiar with abstract art,” he tells you, “therefore I don’t know how to evaluate it; and I have no intuitive feeling about it.” Could this be possible?

a.	No. Research suggests that he will have made an automatic evaluation of your painting even though he is unfamiliar with abstract art. (He may be out of touch with this automatic evaluation, however.)
b.	Yes. Research suggests that people only make automatic evaluations when they are highly familiar with the stimulus category; your uncle will probably need more time to make a conscious opinion.
c.	Yes. Research suggests that people only make automatic evaluations of other people—not of stimuli such as paintings. Your uncle will probably need more time to form a conscious opinion of your painting.
d.	It is impossible to say; some people form automatic evaluations about everything (and if your uncle is one of these people, then he is lying when he says he has no opinion), but other people form automatic evaluations only sometimes (and if your uncle is one of these people, then he may well have not formed an opinion about your painting, and may well need more time to do so).

ANS: A DIF: Difficult

REF: What Are Attitudes and Why Do People Have Them? TYPE: Applied

Social psychologist John Bargh has stated that “we have yet to find something the mind regards with complete impartiality, without at least a mild judgment of liking or disliking.” He was referring to ____.

a.	the fact that people tend to automatically categorize others as “ingroup” members or “outgroup” members
b.	the mere exposure effect
c.	the fact that people make unconscious, immediate evaluations of virtually everything they encounter
d.	belief perseverance

ANS: C DIF: Easy

REF: What Are Attitudes and Why Do People Have Them? TYPE: Conceptual

According to the text, possessing an attitude about something increases ____ of decision-making.

a.	the speed and the quality
b.	the speed but not the quality
c.	the quality but not the speed
d.	neither the speed nor the quality

ANS: A DIF: Moderate

REF: What Are Attitudes and Why Do People Have Them? TYPE: Factual

The mere exposure effect refers to the tendency for people to ____.

a.	come to like something simply because other people like it
b.	come to like something simply because they see or encounter it repeatedly
c.	come to think that something is common, or prevalent, simply because they like it
d.	come to think that something is common, or prevalent, simply because they see or encounter it repeatedly

ANS: B DIF: Moderate REF: How Attitudes Are Formed TYPE: Factual

In 1968, social psychologist Robert Zajonc proposed that “____ of the individual to a stimulus is a sufficient condition for the enhancement of his attitude toward it.”

a.	mere repeated exposure
b.	affective forecasting
c.	excitation transfer
d.	attitude polarization

ANS: A DIF: Moderate REF: How Attitudes Are Formed TYPE: Factual

NOTE: New

Which of the following is the best example of the mere exposure effect?

a.	Eduardo starts to think that a new band is cool simply because other people around him think it is cool.
b.	Keisha starts to like a girl at school simply because she has seen her, semester after semester, in so many of her classes.
c.	Michael loves hip hop music. As a result, he tends to overestimate how much other people like to hip hop.
d.	Frances works in a hospital, and encounters doctors and nurses all day long. As a result, she tends to overestimate how many people work in the medical industry; to her, it seems as if almost everyone does!

ANS: B DIF: Difficult REF: How Attitudes Are Formed TYPE: Applied

Dr. Cross conducts a study in which she repeatedly exposes Lucy to a neutral object (a small painting). The study is neither enjoyable nor painful for Lucy. Assuming that Lucy had a neutral attitude toward the painting at the beginning of the study, how should we expect her to feel about the painting by the end of the study?

a.	She will probably hate it.
b.	She will probably dislike it a little.
c.	She will probably like it a little.
d.	There will probably be no change in her attitude at all.

ANS: C DIF: Moderate REF: How Attitudes Are Formed TYPE: Applied

Suppose that Sam disliked reggaeton the very first time he heard it. How should we expect his attitude to change (if at all) if he hears it several more times?

a.	He will begin to dislike reggaeton less and less.
b.	He will begin to dislike reggaeton more and more.
c.	It is impossible to say; first impressions are fundamentally different from (and not always similar to) later attitudes.
d.	His attitude is likely to stay exactly the same across repeated exposure.

ANS: B DIF: Difficult REF: How Attitudes Are Formed TYPE: Applied

Research suggests that the idea that “familiarity breeds contempt” ____.

a.	is almost always true, regardless of the circumstances
b.	is almost always false, regardless of the circumstances
c.	is almost always true, unless people initially have a very favorable attitude
d.	is almost always false, unless people initially have an unfavorable attitude

ANS: D DIF: Moderate REF: How Attitudes Are Formed TYPE: Conceptual

Research suggests that the idea that “familiarity breeds liking” ____.

a.	is generally true
b.	is generally false
c.	is generally true, unless people initially have a very favorable attitude.
d.	is generally false, unless people initially have an unfavorable attitude

ANS: A DIF: Moderate REF: How Attitudes Are Formed TYPE: Conceptual

Research suggests that the mere exposure effect ____.

a.	is unique to humans (does not occur among other animals)
b.	occurs via the conscious system only
c.	is unique to humans (does not occur among other animals) AND occurs via the conscious system only
d.	is NOT unique to humans and does NOT occur via the conscious system

ANS: D DIF: Moderate REF: How Attitudes Are Formed TYPE: Conceptual

Research on embodied attitudes suggests that ____.

a.	randomly assigned body movements can shape attitudes toward what we hear
b.	attitudes are embodied in beliefs and emotions
c.	body movement is unrelated to attitudes
d.	leaning forward promotes negative attitudes

ANS: A DIF: Moderate REF: How Attitudes Are Formed TYPE: Conceptual

NOTE: New

Which scientist proposed the notion of embodied attitudes?

a.	Charles Darwin
b.	Leon Festinger
c.	Robert Zajonc
d.	Ivan Pavlov

ANS: A DIF: Difficult REF: How Attitudes Are Formed TYPE: Factual

NOTE: New

In Aldous Huxley’s book Brave New World, infants develop a fear of books after books are repeatedly presented with a scary loud noise. In this fictional example, the loud noise is a(n) ____.

a.	conditioned stimulus
b.	conditioned response
c.	unconditioned stimulus
d.	unconditioned response

ANS: C DIF: Difficult REF: How Attitudes Are Formed TYPE: Applied

In a classic study, the word Dutch was systematically paired with positive words (e.g., vacation, gift), whereas the word Swedish was paired with negative words (e.g., bitter, failure). When tested afterward, participants ____.

a.	tended to maintain their rating of the words Dutch and Swedish the same as before the test
b.	rated the word Dutch more positively than the word Swedish
c.	associated the word Dutch with the positive words but did not associate the word Swedish with the negative words
d.	associated the word Swedish with the negative words but did not associate the word Dutch with the positive words

ANS: B DIF: Difficult REF: How Attitudes Are Formed TYPE: Applied

NOTE: New

In the process of classical conditioning, a(n) ____.

a.	neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus
b.	unconditioned stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus
c.	unconditioned response becomes a conditioned response
d.	conditioned stimulus becomes an unconditioned stimulus

ANS: A DIF: Difficult REF: How Attitudes Are Formed TYPE: Conceptual

Classical conditioning can be thought of as a type of ____.

a.	associative learning
b.	imitation
c.	instrumental learning
d.	vicarious learning

ANS: A DIF: Difficult REF: How Attitudes Are Formed TYPE: Conceptual

Suppose that Dylan has a new girlfriend whom he really likes. He programs his cell phone so that every time his new girlfriend calls, his phone plays the new Justin Timberlake single. After he has had his phone programmed this way for a little while, he notices that he feels happy whenever he hears the Justin Timberlake song. This most clearly illustrates ____.

a.	classical conditioning
b.	operant conditioning
c.	the mere exposure effect
d.	social learning

ANS: A DIF: Difficult REF: How Attitudes Are Formed TYPE: Applied

Suppose that Dylan has a new girlfriend whom he really likes. He programs his cell phone so that every time his new girlfriend calls, his phone plays the new Justin Timberlake single. After he has had his phone programmed this way for a little while, he notices that he feels happy whenever he hears the Justin Timberlake song. What is the best term for the role of the Justin Timberlake song?

a.	cognitive inference
b.	behavioral reward
c.	generalization
d.	conditioned stimulus

ANS: D DIF: Difficult REF: How Attitudes Are Formed TYPE: Applied

Early research on classical conditioning was performed with dogs. In certain variations of this research, experimenters repeatedly presented dogs with meat powder just after ringing a bell. The dogs (who would naturally salivate after being exposed to meat powder) learned to associate the bell with the meat powder, and began to salivate as soon as they heard the bell. In this research, the dogs’ salivation was ____.

a.	a conditioned response
b.	an unconditioned response
c.	a neutral stimulus
d.	both an unconditioned response and a conditioned response

ANS: D DIF: Moderate REF: How Attitudes Are Formed TYPE: Applied

Early research on classical conditioning was performed with dogs. In certain variations of this research, experimenters repeatedly presented dogs with meat powder just after ringing a bell. The dogs (who would naturally salivate after being exposed to meat powder) learned to associate the bell with the meat powder, and began to salivate as soon as they heard the bell. In this research, the bell served as a(n) ____.

a.	unconditioned stimulus that became a conditioned stimulus
b.	conditioned stimulus that became an unconditioned stimulus
c.	neutral stimulus that became a conditioned stimulus
d.	unconditioned stimulus that became a neutral stimulus

ANS: C DIF: Moderate REF: How Attitudes Are Formed TYPE: Applied

According to the text, what might best explain the development of prejudice against social groups that are frequently associated with negative information in the media, such as Muslims being associated with terrorism?

a.	operant conditioning
b.	classical conditioning
c.	vicarious learning
d.	observational learning

ANS: B DIF: Moderate REF: How Attitudes Are Formed TYPE: Applied

NOTE: New

One technique that advertisers often use to influence consumers is celebrity endorsement. The logic works like this: If people like Catherine Zeta-Jones and repeatedly see T-Mobile products together with Catherine Zeta-Jones, then people will learn to associate T-Mobile with her and will in turn like T-Mobile more. That is, celebrity endorsement is expected to lead to ____.

a.	operant conditioning
b.	classical conditioning
c.	vicarious learning
d.	observational learning

ANS: B DIF: Moderate REF: How Attitudes Are Formed TYPE: Applied

According to the principles of _____ people are relatively likely to repeat behaviors that have been rewarded and relatively unlikely to repeat behaviors that have been punished.

a.	classical conditioning
b.	operant conditioning
c.	vicarious learning
d.	effort justification

ANS: B DIF: Moderate REF: How Attitudes Are Formed TYPE: Conceptual

Henry’s mother always praises him when he practices the piano and denies him dessert when he doesn’t. Henry’s mother is apparently employing techniques based on ____ in order to encourage her son to practice more.

a.	operant conditioning
b.	classical conditioning
c.	social learning
d.	attitude polarization

ANS: A DIF: Moderate REF: How Attitudes Are Formed TYPE: Applied

Paul is trying to train his puppy, Cupcake. He yells “Bad dog!” whenever Cupcake fails to do what he wants. Paul seems to be using _____.

a.	operant conditioning
b.	classical conditioning
c.	social learning
d.	attitude polarization

ANS: A DIF: Moderate REF: How Attitudes Are Formed TYPE: Applied

Which of the following is the best example of operant conditioning?

a.	You notice that many of your classmates are comfortable speaking with professors after class. Even though you are usually shy, you therefore decide that you will try to speak with professors after class too.
b.	Every time you wear the poncho you purchased in Mexico, you think fondly about the time that you spent there.
c.	You ask for an extension on a paper that is due for class, your teacher says yes, and you still end up with a really good grade. This leads you to ask other teachers for extensions as well.
d.	After going to the same dentist for many years, you develop a fondness for your dentist and for the other people who work in her office.

ANS: C DIF: Moderate REF: How Attitudes Are Formed TYPE: Applied

Operant conditioning is also sometimes referred to as ____.

a.	instrumental learning
b.	effort justification
c.	vicarious learning
d.	learning by example

ANS: A DIF: Moderate REF: How Attitudes Are Formed TYPE: Factual

Research has demonstrated that people are more likely to imitate behaviors if they have seen others rewarded for performing those behaviors, and less likely to imitate behaviors if they have seen others punished for performing those behaviors. This type of learning is known as ____.

a.	instrumental learning
b.	social learning
c.	classical conditioning
d.	operant conditioning

ANS: B DIF: Moderate REF: How Attitudes Are Formed TYPE: Factual

Social learning is also sometimes referred to as observational learning or ____.

a.	instrumental learning
b.	justified learning
c.	vicarious conditioning
d.	conditional learning

ANS: C DIF: Moderate REF: How Attitudes Are Formed TYPE: Factual

Which of the following is the best example of social learning?

a.	You notice that many of your classmates are comfortable speaking with professors after class. Even though you are usually shy, you therefore decide that you will try to speak with professors after class too.
b.	Every time you wear the poncho you purchased in Mexico, you think fondly about the time that you spent there.
c.	You ask for an extension on a paper that is due for class, your teacher says yes, and you still end up with a really good grade. This leads you to ask other teachers for extensions as well.
d.	After going to the same dentist for many years, you develop a fondness for your dentist and for the other people who work in her office.

ANS: A DIF: Moderate REF: How Attitudes Are Formed TYPE: Applied

Kevin has just moved to a new neighborhood. In his old neighborhood, everyone wore Vans and board shorts, but he notices that the kids on his new block are wearing Nikes and basketball shorts. He also notices that they tease people who are not dressed this way. Kevin immediately asks his mom to take him to the store to buy new clothes. What has taken place here?

a.	Attitude polarization
b.	The mere exposure effect
c.	Observational learning
d.	Operant conditioning

ANS: C DIF: Moderate REF: How Attitudes Are Formed TYPE: Applied

Research suggests that the more people think about their attitudes, the stronger their attitudes tend to become. For example, the more a Lakers fan thinks about how much she likes the Lakers, the more of a die-hard fan she is likely to become. This effect is called ____.

a.	attitude polarization
b.	the sentiment effect
c.	the mere exposure effect
d.	belief perseverance

ANS: A DIF: Moderate REF: How Attitudes Are Formed TYPE: Factual

Attitude polarization refers to the finding that ____.

a.	when people reflect on a given attitude, their position on that attitude tends to become more extreme.
b.	when people reflect on a given attitude, they tend to become more open-minded with respect to that attitude.
c.	people are more likely to spend time reflecting on issues that they have extreme views about than issues that they have moderate views about.
d.	people are more likely to spend time reflecting on issues that they have moderate views about than issues that they have extreme views about.

ANS: A DIF: Difficult REF: How Attitudes Are Formed TYPE: Conceptual

Beth and Jean are talking about welfare reform in America. Beth is very passionate about the issue, and makes strong statements about her views. Jean later e-mails Beth an article which contains some information that is consistent with Beth’s views, as well as some information that is inconsistent with Beth’s views. Beth chooses to believe the consistent information but discounts the inconsistent information. As a matter of fact, after reading the article and thinking about the data it contained—even though these data were mixed—Beth actually feels even more passionate and more strongly about her position. This is an example of ____.

a.	anchoring and adjustment
b.	informational influence
c.	attitude polarization
d.	cognitive coping

ANS: C DIF: Moderate REF: How Attitudes Are Formed TYPE: Applied

According to research studies, people who hold strong attitudes toward an issue are least likely to do which of the following?

a.	Show attitude polarization if they think about the issue.
b.	Evaluate relevant information in a biased manner.
c.	Seek out relevant information from outgroup members.
d.	Seek out information that supports their initial view.

ANS: C DIF: Moderate REF: How Attitudes Are Formed TYPE: Conceptual

Fritz Heider’s balance theory is also known as the ____.

a.	P-O-X theory
b.	cognitive dissonance theory
c.	social learning theory
d.	dual attitudes theory

ANS: A DIF: Moderate REF: Consistency TYPE: Factual

In Fritz Heider’s balance theory, the fundamental paradigm for analyzing relationships is a(n) ____.

a.	square
b.	triangle
c.	circle
d.	arc

ANS: B DIF: Easy REF: Consistency TYPE: Factual

In Fritz Heider’s balance theory, balance is synonymous with ____.

a.	consistency
b.	happiness
c.	efficiency
d.	understanding

ANS: A DIF: Moderate REF: Consistency TYPE: Factual

In P-O-X theory, the “P” stands for person, the “O” for another person, and the “X” for _____.

a.	an attitude object
b.	the relationship between the two people
c.	the observer
d.	the difference between the two people

ANS: A DIF: Difficult REF: Consistency TYPE: Factual

Suppose that Hal and Peyton both hate Victor. According to balance theory (P-O-X theory), if the relationship between Hal, Victor, and Peyton is balanced, then ____.

a.	Victor must like Peyton
b.	Victor must like Hal
c.	Hal must like Peyton
d.	Peyton must dislike Hal

ANS: C DIF: Easy REF: Consistency TYPE: Applied

Which of the following theories suggests that people prefer consistency to inconsistency, and that people attempt to seek out consistency in their relationships?

a.	Balance theory (P-O-X theory)
b.	Social facilitation theory
c.	Optimal distinctiveness theory
d.	Social identity theory

ANS: A DIF: Easy REF: Consistency TYPE: Conceptual

According to cognitive dissonance theory, discrepancies between attitudes and behaviors produce ____.

a.	unpleasant memories
b.	psychological discomfort
c.	pleasant memories
d.	psychological comfort

ANS: B DIF: Easy REF: Consistency TYPE: Factual

Which one of the following statements best describes cognitive dissonance theory?

a.	“People don’t like to be hypocrites.”
b.	“People are very stubborn about holding onto their attitudes.”
c.	“People have a hard time seeing things from others’ perspective.”
d.	“People prefer others who share their opinions and attitudes.”

ANS: A DIF: Moderate REF: Consistency TYPE: Conceptual

With ____, people rationalize their behavior so as to bring their attitudes into line with their actions.

a.	subjective norms
b.	attitude polarization
c.	divergent bias
d.	cognitive dissonance

ANS: D DIF: Moderate REF: Consistency TYPE: Factual

According to cognitive dissonance theory, “we come to love the things we suffer for.” For example, we tend to be especially loyal to groups that require severe or painful initiations. Why does this happen?

a.	This happens because the goals themselves (the things that we suffer for) are actually always very valuable; otherwise, we wouldn’t have suffered for them in the first place.
b.	This happens because, deep down, people really like to suffer.
c.	This happens because we are motivated to justify the time and effort we’ve spent on our choices.
d.	This happens because classical conditioning is at play: when we finally reach our goals, our suffering ends. We therefore associate our goals with “end of suffering” and come to love them.

ANS: C DIF: Moderate REF: Consistency TYPE: Conceptual

In general, people do not like to suffer, work hard, or make sacrifices. If and when they do these things, they want to feel that their efforts were worthwhile. Thus, even when people’s efforts do not actually seem to have paid off, people will nonetheless try to convince themselves that they suffered for a good reason. This tendency is known as ____.

a.	effort justification
b.	attitude polarization
c.	a self-fulfilling prophecy
d.	the false consensus effect

ANS: A DIF: Moderate REF: Consistency TYPE: Factual

How does the notion of effort justification relate to cognitive dissonance?

a.	Effort justification is a type of cognitive dissonance.
b.	Effort justification precedes cognitive dissonance.
c.	Effort justification is often a motive for cognitive dissonance.
d.	Effort justification is often used to reduce cognitive dissonance.

ANS: D DIF: Moderate REF: Consistency TYPE: Conceptual

Last summer, Fabia applied for three jobs. The first required a resume, but nothing else. The second required both a resume and a long personal statement. The third required a resume and indicated that a long personal statement was optional (recommended but not required; Fabia went ahead and wrote one anyway). Suppose that Fabia was turned down by all three jobs. Which rejection was she probably MOST upset about?

a.	The rejection by the first job
b.	The rejection by the second job
c.	The rejection by the third job
d.	The rejections by the second and third jobs (equally)

ANS: C DIF: Moderate REF: Consistency TYPE: Applied

Research on effort justification and cognitive dissonance theory might suggest that we will be more attracted to potential dating partners who ____ than potential dating partners who ____.

a.	are physically attractive, are not
b.	play “hard to get”, don’t
c.	are similar to us, are not
d.	flatter us, don’t

ANS: B DIF: Moderate REF: Consistency TYPE: Applied

Research on effort justification and cognitive dissonance theory most directly suggests that ____.

a.	fraternity “hazing” is an effective way to promote group loyalty.
b.	most people engage in social loafing.
c.	twelve-person juries are likely to come up with different verdicts than are juries with four or fewer people.
d.	most people look to others when deciding how to behave in a group context.

ANS: A DIF: Moderate REF: Consistency TYPE: Factual

Research on effort justification and cognitive dissonance theory could be most easily used to explain ____.

a.	why people stay in long-term relationships when they are dissatisfied
b.	why people live beyond their means and rack up credit card debt
c.	why people engage in unprotected sex or drive after drinking alcohol
d.	why people care so much about fitting in and gaining the approval of others

ANS: A DIF: Difficult REF: Consistency TYPE: Applied

In 1959, Festinger and Carlsmith conducted a classic experiment in which they asked participants to tell a lie (about how interesting a very boring study was). The researchers paid participants either $1 or $20 to tell this lie. The same participants were then asked how interesting they really thought the study was. What did the researchers find?

a.	There was no difference between those paid $1 and those paid $20; both said that the (very boring) study was indeed boring.
b.	There was no difference between those paid $1 and those paid $20; both said that the (very boring) study was in fact very interesting.
c.	Compared to those paid $1, those paid $20 rated the study as much more interesting.
d.	Compared to those paid $20, those paid $1 rated the study as much more interesting.

ANS: D DIF: Easy REF: Consistency TYPE: Factual

Festinger and Carlsmith (1959) performed a famous experiment on cognitive dissonance in which subjects were asked to lie to a fellow student (about how fun a psychology experiment was) for either $1 or $20. For subjects in the $1 condition, dissonance was created because these subjects thought to themselves: “I am a nice, ethical person, but I have just been mean and told a lie.” It appears that the $1 subjects were ultimately able to reduce this dissonance by thinking to themselves: ____.

a.	“I did not really tell a lie because the experiment was not that boring. In fact, the more I think about it, the more I think that it was kind of fun!”
b.	“I know I told that person a lie. But so what? There are bigger problems in this world!!”
c.	“Lying is a terrible thing. I swear that I will never do it again.”
d.	“Whatever! I got $1 for doing almost nothing! Good deal!!”

ANS: A DIF: Easy REF: Consistency TYPE: Factual

The results of Festinger and Carlsmith’s (1959) study of cognitive dissonance suggests that ____.

a.	if people are paid less for doing a questionable act, they will rationalize it more
b.	people will rationalize their own questionable behavior no matter how much they are paid to do it
c.	if people are paid more for doing a questionable act, they will rationalize it more
d.	if people are paid less for doing a questionable act, they will rationalize it less

ANS: A DIF: Moderate REF: Consistency TYPE: Conceptual

Research indicates that people will sometimes choose to suffer as a result of simply expecting to suffer—but only if ____.

a.	they have a reward system in place
b.	they have low self-esteem
c.	they have coped with the expectation of suffering by thinking about it and changed relevant beliefs and attitudes
d.	they have not yet thought about the upcoming suffering

ANS: C DIF: Difficult REF: Consistency TYPE: Conceptual

Comer and Laird’s (1975) study told some participants that they would be doing a worm-eating task. After a short period during which the participants could contemplate worm eating, the experimenter told them there was a mistake, and that they could choose between worm-eating and weight discrimination tasks. What percent of the participants chose to stay with the worm-eating task when given a more emotionally neutral (weight discrimination) alternative?

a.	100%
b.	80%
c.	50%
d.	10%

ANS: B DIF: Difficult REF: Consistency TYPE: Factual

George is supposed to give a presentation in his History class on Thursday, and has been dreading it intensely all month (his knowledge of the topic is shaky, and so is his presentation style). On Wednesday, the day before the presentation is scheduled, George’s teacher, Ms. Torres, tells him that he can present the following week if he likes. Instead of taking Ms. Torres up on this offer, however, George says that he will go ahead and present the next day. Why?

a.	George must have coped with his nervousness and dread by changing some relevant attitudes and beliefs.
b.	George must have heard Ms. Torres incorrectly because of his anxiety; otherwise, he would obviously have postponed the presentation.
c.	George must have coped with his nervousness and dread by simply blocking the presentation out of his mind completely and not thinking about it.
d.	George must have low self-esteem; otherwise, he would have postponed the presentation.

ANS: A DIF: Moderate REF: Consistency TYPE: Applied

Deepa has finally decided where to attend graduate school—University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. After she has informed all the schools of her final decision, she begins to question her choice. However, she immediately focuses on all the reasons Illinois was the best choice for her, and better than her other options by far. This reassures her and makes her happy again. Deepa’s feeling of uncertainty and subsequent motivation to justify her choice is an example of ____.

a.	attributional regret
b.	post-decision dissonance
c.	tyranny of choice
d.	attitude accessibility

ANS: B DIF: Moderate REF: Consistency TYPE: Applied

Suppose that Rachel sold one of her stocks last week and that the value of the stock has tripled since then. What a mistake! In which of the following cases is Rachel most likely to experience cognitive dissonance?

a.	If she chose to sell the stock against her stockbroker’s advice
b.	If she chose to sell the stock because her friend suggested it
c.	If she chose to sell the stock because her stockbroker suggested it
d.	If she was on vacation last week and it was her husband who decided to sell the stock for her

ANS: A DIF: Difficult REF: Consistency TYPE: Applied

Alex just bought a car last month and it is already having major mechanical problems. In which of the following cases is Alex least likely to experience cognitive dissonance?

a.	He bought the car against his friends’ advice, and spent a lot of money on it.
b.	He bought the car against his friends’ advice, but it was cheap.
c.	His friends supported his car purchase even though he spent a lot of money on it.
d.	His friends supported his car purchase, and it was cheap.

ANS: D DIF: Difficult REF: Consistency TYPE: Applied

In terms of how it is experienced, cognitive dissonance most closely resembles ____.

a.	an emotion or feeling of arousal
b.	a gap in memory
c.	an eerie feeling akin to déjà vu, clairvoyance, or communicating with ghosts
d.	intense cognitive focus (i.e., being “in the zone”)

ANS: A DIF: Easy REF: Consistency TYPE: Conceptual

Iris is a vegetarian, but she ate a steak last night. When would she be most likely to try to rationalize her steak-eating?

a.	If she was forced to eat the steak against her will
b.	If she was paid a lot of money to eat the steak
c.	If she chose to eat the steak and she feels guilty or nervous—regardless of whether she attributes these feelings to the steak-eating
d.	If she chose to eat the steak and feels guilty or nervous, AND attributes these feelings to the steak-eating

ANS: D DIF: Moderate REF: Consistency TYPE: Factual | Conceptual

Suppose that Janine—who volunteers for a variety of environmental causes and frequently speaks on campus about the importance of recycling—decided to buy a gas-guzzling SUV last week. When is she most likely to try to rationalize her behavior?

a.	If no one she knows owns the same vehicle
b.	If many people she knows own the same vehicle
c.	If she did not know about the SUV’s poor mileage when she bought it
d.	If she experiences guilt or discomfort surrounding her purchase

ANS: D DIF: Moderate REF: Consistency TYPE: Applied

In light of the research on cognitive dissonance theory, what is the best explanation for the role of large, expensive marriage ceremonies?

a.	Such ceremonies probably strengthen partners’ commitment due to effort justification but do not contribute to specific marriage-consistent behaviors.
b.	Such ceremonies probably discourage specific marriage-inconsistent behaviors such as cheating due to the involvement of friends and family but do not contribute to overall commitment.
c.	Such ceremonies probably strengthen partners’ commitment due to effort justification AND probably discourage marriage-inconsistent behaviors such as cheating due to the involvement of friends and family.
d.	Such ceremonies probably DO NOT strengthen partners’ commitment due to effort justification and probably DO NOT discourage marriage-inconsistent behaviors such as cheating due to the involvement of friends and family.

ANS: C DIF: Moderate REF: Consistency TYPE: Applied

According to cognitive dissonance theory, if Selena has just volunteered to give a presentation to her classmates about the importance of practicing safe sex at all times, then—at least in the immediate future—what best describes her likely behavior?

a.	She will be more likely to practice safe sex herself.
b.	She will be more likely to believe that practicing safe sex is important.
c.	She will be more likely to practice safe sex herself AND more likely to believe that practicing safe sex is important.
d.	She will NOT be more likely to practice safe sex herself and will NOT be more likely to believe that practicing safe sex is important.

ANS: C DIF: Moderate REF: Consistency TYPE: Applied

Alcoholics Anonymous (AA) meetings are “self help” meetings comprised of people who are recovering from alcohol-related problems. These meetings employ a number of practices designed to keep people away from alcohol. Which of the practices listed below is most consistent with the research on cognitive dissonance theory and attitude change? That is, which of the following would a cognitive dissonance theorist be most likely to applaud?

a.	All group members remain anonymous.
b.	All group members state, publicly, that they have an alcohol problem.
c.	Group members are encouraged to seek out a “sponsor,” who will support them during rough times.
d.	Group members are welcomed back into the group even if they temporarily “fall off the wagon” (lapse into drinking).

ANS: B DIF: Difficult REF: Consistency TYPE: Applied

According to the text, the drive for consistency is ____.

a.	likely to be rooted in our biological nature
b.	likely to involve the conscious mind only (and not the unconscious mind)
c.	far more prevalent in collectivistic cultures than in individualistic cultures
d.	far more prevalent in individualistic cultures than in collectivistic cultures

ANS: A DIF: Moderate REF: Consistency TYPE: Conceptual

The need to feel that one is thinking and behaving in consistent ways is ____.

a.	probably innate—rooted in our biological nature
b.	probably culture-bound—important in some cultures but not in others
c.	probably a matter of self-presentation only; inconsistencies seem only to be troubling when others know about them
d.	enormously varied from one person to the next; not everyone feels this need, and—among those who do—some people feel it much more strongly than others

ANS: A DIF: Moderate REF: Consistency TYPE: Conceptual

In one well-known study that was conducted during an era of anti-Chinese prejudice (LaPiere, 1934), a researcher drove across the U.S. with a Chinese couple, stopping at dozens of restaurants, hotels, auto camps, and tourist homes. He was interested in attitude-behavior consistency. Specifically, he was interested in knowing the percentage of establishments that would serve the couple, as well as the percentage of establishments that would say that they would serve the couple when contacted later. What did he find?

a.	Nearly 100% served them; and roughly 90% said they would.
b.	Nearly 100% served them; but only about 10% said they would.
c.	Only about 10% served them; but about 90% said they would.
d.	Only about 10% served them; but nearly 100% said they would.

ANS: B DIF: Moderate REF: Do Attitudes Really Predict Behaviors?

TYPE: Factual

In one well-known study that was conducted during an era of anti-Chinese prejudice (LaPiere, 1934), a researcher drove across the U.S. with a Chinese couple, stopping at dozens of restaurants, hotels, auto camps, and tourist homes. He was interested in knowing the percentage of establishments that would serve the couple, as well as the percentage of establishments that would SAY that they would serve the couple when contacted later. The results from this research provided some of the first evidence of ____.

a.	the fact that people’s stated attitudes are not always consistent with their actual behaviors
b.	post-dissonance rationalization
c.	implicit prejudice
d.	aversive racism

ANS: A DIF: Moderate REF: Do Attitudes Really Predict Behaviors?

TYPE: Conceptual

Much research has demonstrated a weak link between (a) what people say their attitudes are, and (b) how they actually behave. According to the text, one of the key reasons that this relationship is so weak, however, is the fact that researchers have often ____.

a.	tried to relate very general attitudes to very specific behaviors
b.	tried to relate very specific attitudes to very general behaviors
c.	limited their research in this area to very sensitive topics (e.g., sexual attitudes and behaviors), where attitude-behavior inconsistencies are especially likely to occur
d.	limited their research in this area to topics that research participants are unlikely to care much about (e.g., the number of minutes they will spend on a particular experimental task), where attitude-behavior inconsistencies are especially likely to occur

ANS: A DIF: Moderate REF: Do Attitudes Really Predict Behaviors?

TYPE: Conceptual

A study (Ajzen and Fishbein, 1977) conducted to defend attitudes as a construct predictive of behavior found that if you want to predict who will give blood, you should place which of the following statements on your attitude measure? (Assume a five-point Likert scale anchored by strongly disagree to strongly agree.)

a.	I believe giving blood is a good thing.
b.	I believe giving blood will help others.
c.	I am a helpful person.
d.	I believe giving blood is the right thing for me to do.

ANS: D DIF: Difficult REF: Do Attitudes Really Predict Behaviors?

TYPE: Applied

Consider the Ajzen and Fishbein’s 1977 study for the problem of attitudes predicting behavior. In what way was this study inadequate?

a.	It did not directly address the issue of whether attitudes could predict behavior.
b.	It required researchers to focus on accessibility rather than consistency.
c.	It showed that behaviors predicted attitudes rather than the other way around.
d.	It required researchers to have to measure a vast number of specific attitudes.

ANS: D DIF: Difficult REF: Do Attitudes Really Predict Behaviors?

TYPE: Conceptual

Which of the following best describes behavioral aggregation as a solution to the problem of attitude-behavior inconsistency?

a.	Measure the specific attitude toward the specific behavior you want to predict.
b.	Make sure the general attitude is considered in context of the behavior you want to predict.
c.	Measure a variety of types of behaviors to which the general attitude could relate.
d.	Increase the accessibility of the attitude.

ANS: C DIF: Moderate REF: Do Attitudes Really Predict Behaviors?

TYPE: Applied

Which of the following is NOT a proposed solution to the problem of attitude-behavior inconsistency?

a.	Effort justification
b.	Behavioral aggregation
c.	Broad attitude in context
d.	Attitude accessibility

ANS: A DIF: Moderate REF: Do Attitudes Really Predict Behaviors?

TYPE: Conceptual

____ works on the assumption that a person’s attitude toward helping others might fare better if his or her behavior is not measured by a single test.

a.	Effort justification
b.	Behavioral aggregation
c.	Behavioral plasticity
d.	Attitude accessibility

ANS: B DIF: Easy REF: Do Attitudes Really Predict Behaviors?

TYPE: Factual

When the offering plate is passed at her church, Pat rarely puts any money in it. She always looks at the offering as a financial question in terms of her own books. She has never thought of it in terms of an indicator of her faith. Pat is a devout believer in the teachings of her church. Pat’s attitude-behavior inconsistency results from ____.

a.	her broad attitude of faith not being considered in the context of the offering plate
b.	irrational beliefs about religion and finance
c.	her everyday automatic world (finance) controlling her deliberate (spiritual) self
d.	divergent cognitive coping mechanisms

ANS: A DIF: Moderate REF: Do Attitudes Really Predict Behaviors?

TYPE: Applied

To increase the chance that a general attitude like “Helping others is a good thing” will predict a specific behavior like someone’s willingness to give blood, you should ____.

a.	measure their cognitive coping skills first
b.	measure the general attitude and link it to the specific behavior
c.	ask the person to think about giving blood as a helpful act when you make the request for a blood donation
d.	reduce the accessibility of the attitude

ANS: C DIF: Easy REF: Do Attitudes Really Predict Behaviors?

TYPE: Conceptual

Attitude accessibility refers to ____.

a.	how easily the attitude comes to mind
b.	how the attitude fits in the larger cognitive structure of belief
c.	the tendency for attitudes to become more extreme upon reflection
d.	the tendency to like something more as exposure to it increases

ANS: A DIF: Easy REF: Do Attitudes Really Predict Behaviors?

TYPE: Factual

Research has shown that attitudes that are certain, stable, consistent, available, and based on direct experience are especially effective in predicting behavior. These attitudes best illustrate the term ____.

a.	probability
b.	intention
c.	accessibility
d.	aggregation

ANS: C DIF: Easy REF: Do Attitudes Really Predict Behaviors?

TYPE: Factual

Who has the most accessible attitude?

a.	Zoe, who has to think for a while about whether she favors the death penalty or not
b.	Shawna, who doesn’t care one way or the other about the death penalty
c.	Diti, who has very extreme views about abortion
d.	Lira, who can tell you right away her opinion on abortion

ANS: D DIF: Moderate REF: Do Attitudes Really Predict Behaviors?

TYPE: Applied

On a questionnaire, June is asked if she plans to donate blood or not. The researcher is measuring June’s ___,

a.	behavioral intention
b.	subjective norms
c.	perceived behavioral control
d.	attitude accessibility

ANS: A DIF: Moderate REF: Do Attitudes Really Predict Behaviors?

TYPE: Applied NOTE: New

Whether a person plans to perform a behavior in question refers to ___,

a.	behavioral intention
b.	subjective norms
c.	perceived behavioral control
d.	attitude accessibility

ANS: A DIF: Easy REF: Do Attitudes Really Predict Behaviors?

TYPE: Factual NOTE: New

When a person intends to perform a behavior, attitude-behavior consistency ____.

a.	increases
b.	decreases
c.	increases for females, but decreases for males
d.	increases for males, but decreases for females

ANS: A DIF: Difficult REF: Do Attitudes Really Predict Behaviors?

TYPE: Conceptual NOTE: New

One’s perceptions about whether significant others believe a person should perform a behavior or not refers to one’s ____.

a.	behavioral intention
b.	subjective norms
c.	perceived behavioral control.
d.	dissonance level

ANS: B DIF: Moderate REF: Do Attitudes Really Predict Behaviors?

TYPE: Factual NOTE: New

Mariah has an unplanned, unwanted pregnancy. She is thinking about having an abortion. But her family members and close friends are all strongly opposed to abortion. The influence of their views on Mariah’s decision to pursue abortion or not best illustrates the importance of ____.

a.	subjective norms
b.	behavioral intention
c.	perceived behavioral control
d.	belief perseverance

ANS: A DIF: Moderate REF: Do Attitudes Really Predict Behaviors?

TYPE: Applied NOTE: New

Chandler wants to give blood at the school blood drive, and he plans to try to do so. But he knows that he will probably be turned away because of a medicine he is on. Chandler has a positive attitude toward blood donation, but what element of the Theory of Planned Behavior inhibits his ability to behave consistently with his attitude?

a.	behavioral intention
b.	subjective norms
c.	perceived behavioral control
d.	attitude accessibility

ANS: C DIF: Moderate REF: Do Attitudes Really Predict Behaviors?

TYPE: Applied NOTE: New

Social psychologists use the term _____ to refer to the fact that research reveals only a weak relationship between people’s stated attitudes and actual behaviors.

a.	behavioral schism
b.	the A-B problem
c.	cognitive dissonance
d.	attitude polarization

ANS: B DIF: Moderate REF: Do Attitudes Really Predict Behaviors?

TYPE: Factual

The so-called A-B problem refers to the fact that ____.

a.	people are not always aware of the factors that influence their feelings toward things
b.	people are not always aware of their feelings toward things
c.	people’s emotional responses are not always in sync with their behaviors
d.	people’s stated attitudes are often inconsistent with their behaviors

ANS: D DIF: Moderate REF: Do Attitudes Really Predict Behaviors?

TYPE: Factual

The so-called A-B problem refers to the fact that there is often a weak relationship between people’s ___.

a.	implicit and explicit attitudes
b.	affects and behaviors
c.	attitudes and behaviors
d.	affects and cognitions

ANS: C DIF: Moderate REF: Do Attitudes Really Predict Behaviors?

TYPE: Factual

Research on gender differences in sex-related attitudes and behaviors indicates that ____ show relatively more attitude-behavior consistency, and that this is largely owing to the fact that ____.

a.	men; men tend to be the initiators of sexual activity
b.	men; men’s sexual responses are less context-dependent than women’s
c.	women; women tend to be the initiators of sexual activity
d.	women; women’s sexual responses are less context-dependent than men’s

ANS: B DIF: Difficult REF: Do Attitudes Really Predict Behaviors?

TYPE: Factual

Research on gender differences in sex-related attitudes and behaviors indicates that men show relatively more attitude-behavior consistency when it comes to ____.

a.	homosexual (same-sex) behavior
b.	infidelity (cheating behavior)
c.	both homosexual (same-sex) behavior and infidelity (cheating)
d.	neither homosexual (same-sex) behavior nor infidelity (cheating)

ANS: C DIF: Difficult REF: Do Attitudes Really Predict Behaviors?

TYPE: Factual

The fact that the gap between pro-condom attitudes and non-condom-using behaviors is larger among women than men best demonstrates ____.

a.	effort justification
b.	post-decision dissonance
c.	attitude-behavior consistency
d.	attitude polarization

ANS: C DIF: Moderate REF: Do Attitudes Really Predict Behaviors?

TYPE: Factual NOTE: New

Which behavior best summarizes the text’s conclusion about attitude-behavior consistency?

a.	Attitudes predict behavior with near perfect accuracy.
b.	Attitudes are an abstract concept, with little to no predictive value.
c.	Attitudes are consistent with behavior in most situations.
d.	Attitude can predict behavior, just not with the simplicity or prevalence originally thought.

ANS: D DIF: Moderate REF: Do Attitudes Really Predict Behaviors?

TYPE: Conceptual

Suppose that you are watching a television commercial advertising a new car. The commercial’s spokesperson is raving about how smooth the ride is, and going bananas over what a great deal the car is. If you are half-asleep while watching the commercial, how will your automatic system process the claims?

a.	Your automatic system will not process the claims at all (it will only process the images).
b.	Your automatic system will process the claims simply as claims; you would need to use your conscious system in order to judge their (in)validity.
c.	Your automatic system will process these claims as true; you would need to use your conscious system to override this assessment and doubt them.
d.	Your automatic system will process these claims as false; you would need to use your conscious system to assess their validity.

ANS: C DIF: Moderate REF: Beliefs and Believing TYPE: Applied

Which of the following statements is most accurate?

a.	Evaluation of information occurs only via the automatic system.
b.	Evaluation of information occurs only via the conscious system.
c.	The process of taking in information and the process of evaluating whether information is correct or not are intertwined.
d.	The process of taking in information is separate from the process of evaluating information.

ANS: C DIF: Moderate REF: Beliefs and Believing TYPE: Factual

Research suggests that, if you are half-asleep on the sofa watching an infomercial, such that you are processing the contents of the infomercial solely via the automatic system, then your automatic system is likely to take in the ____.

a.	images of the infomercial, but none of the claims
b.	claims of the infomercial, but not evaluate them
c.	claims of the infomercial as “true”
d.	claims of the infomercial as “false”

ANS: C DIF: Moderate REF: Beliefs and Believing TYPE: Applied

When advertisers need to help sell a low-quality product, they often make ads that use loud music and distracting images (as opposed to ads that explicitly and straightforwardly discuss the features of the product). This is probably a good strategy because it is likely to foster ____ processing of the ad’s claims, and in turn to ____.

a.	automatic; encourage emotional attachment to the product
b.	automatic; prevent people from doubting the validity of the claims
c.	deliberate; encourage emotional attachment to the product
d.	deliberate; prevent people from doubting the validity of the claims

ANS: B DIF: Moderate REF: Beliefs and Believing TYPE: Applied

You are trying to persuade your mother to lend you some money. You decide to make your attack in the evening, when she will be tired and distracted. This evening strategy is likely to be effective (assuming your mother is not in a bad mood) because in the evening she will be more likely than usual to rely on the ____ system, which will in turn ____.

a.	automatic; encourage an emotional response
b.	automatic; prevent her from questioning the reasons for your request
c.	deliberate; encourage an emotional response
d.	deliberate; prevent her from questioning the reasons for your request

ANS: B DIF: Moderate REF: Beliefs and Believing TYPE: Applied

The tendency for people to hold on to their beliefs—even when their beliefs are discredited by compelling evidence—is known as ____.

a.	cognitive dissonance
b.	belief perseverance
c.	the A-B problem
d.	cognitive stickiness

ANS: B DIF: Moderate REF: Beliefs and Believing TYPE: Factual

The tendency to engage in belief perseverance can be reduced or eliminated by ____.

a.	attempting to make one’s behaviors and attitudes more consistent
b.	making an effort to persuade others of one’s beliefs
c.	coming up with personal examples to support one’s beliefs
d.	coming up with counter-arguments (i.e., arguments for “the other side”)

ANS: D DIF: Moderate REF: Beliefs and Believing TYPE: Conceptual

Which of the following is the best example of belief perseverance?

a.	Terrence supports the war in Iraq. He does not like to watch any TV programming that is critical of the war.
b.	Charlie believes his MP3 player is in the medicine cabinet. Even after he has looked absolutely everywhere in the cabinet and found no evidence whatsoever of the player, he continues to believe this.
c.	Krista believes in ghosts. She says that she has seen them, and refuses to listen to anyone who wants to tell her otherwise.
d.	Although her chances of winning are extremely slim, Eve continues to hope that one day she will win the lottery.

ANS: B DIF: Moderate REF: Beliefs and Believing TYPE: Applied

Ingrid believes there is a dog in the car. Even after she has looked absolutely everywhere in the car and found no evidence whatsoever of a dog, she continues to believe this. This scenario best exemplifies ____.

a.	attitude polarization
b.	belief perseverance
c.	the A-B problem
d.	cognitive dissonance

ANS: B DIF: Moderate REF: Beliefs and Believing TYPE: Applied

In terms of the kinds of predictions that it makes, research on cognitive dissonance theory is most at odds with research on ____.

a.	belief perseverance
b.	the A-B problem
c.	balance theory
d.	effort justification

ANS: A DIF: Moderate REF: Beliefs and Believing TYPE: Conceptual

Social psychologists use the word ____ to refer to how people deal with traumas and return, post-trauma, to healthy, effective functioning.

a.	recalibrating
b.	transitioning
c.	monitoring
d.	coping

ANS: D DIF: Easy REF: Beliefs and Believing TYPE: Factual

The term ____ is used to refer to the idea that people live and function in the social universe based on certain beliefs about reality.

a.	accessibility
b.	assumptive worlds
c.	unit relationships
d.	coping

ANS: B DIF: Easy REF: Beliefs and Believing TYPE: Factual

As discussed in the text, there are three types of beliefs that help people to function effectively in the social world, and that are often cast into doubt when people experience violent crimes or other traumas. Which of the following is NOT one of them?

a.	“The world is fair to people.”
b.	“The world is kind, safe, and good.”
c.	“I deserve what I get.”
d.	“I am a good person.”

ANS: C DIF: Difficult REF: Beliefs and Believing TYPE: Factual

Wei-Shin was mugged while he was walking across campus alone one evening. The event left him with his wallet and identity stolen, and a broken nose and rib. Wei-Shin thinks to himself, “What kind of world is this, where someone will mug a poor college student?” Wei-Shin is having trouble coping because this traumatic event has challenged his ____.

a.	attitude accessibility
b.	downward comparisons
c.	assumptive worlds
d.	attitude-behavior consistency

ANS: C DIF: Moderate REF: Beliefs and Believing TYPE: Applied

The idea that beliefs play a central role in helping people cope and recover from misfortunes is called ____.

a.	balance theory
b.	dual attitude theory
c.	belief perseverance
d.	cognitive coping

ANS: D DIF: Moderate REF: Beliefs and Believing TYPE: Factual

Research on post-trauma coping indicates that one of the worst possible things—in terms of predicting post-trauma recovery—is for people to ____.

a.	blame themselves for the trauma
b.	feel like there is no explanation at all for the trauma
c.	feel like the trauma was fated, or predestined
d.	believe that many other people have experienced similar traumas

ANS: B DIF: Difficult REF: Beliefs and Believing TYPE: Conceptual

Suppose that Anandi was mugged at gunpoint and that is was an extremely traumatic experience. Which of the following cognitive reactions is MOST likely to help her recover?

a.	“I should have never gone into that neighborhood alone, especially not with my fancy car. It’s clear why this happened. I made myself an obvious target.”
b.	“The event was totally random. It could have happened to anyone, at any time, in any place.”
c.	“Why was I attacked? Why me? Why now? What did I do to deserve this?”
d.	“The world is just an unpredictable, dangerous place. I just need to accept that and move on.”

ANS: A DIF: Moderate REF: Beliefs and Believing TYPE: Applied

Research on post-trauma coping suggests that—contrary to what many people think—blaming oneself for a trauma can, in some cases, help people recover. This seems to be because self-blame causes people to _____.

a.	minimize the magnitude of the trauma
b.	seek out social support
c.	reflect on their life priorities
d.	feel a greater sense of control and empowerment

ANS: D DIF: Moderate REF: Beliefs and Believing TYPE: Conceptual

Research by Shelley Taylor and her colleagues on effective coping among cancer patients has suggested that all of the following are important in promoting recovery EXCEPT ____.

a.	making downward comparisons with other cancer patients
b.	making upward comparisons with other cancer patients
c.	feeling that there is a “higher purpose” for one’s cancer
d.	feeling that one can control one’s cancer

ANS: B DIF: Moderate REF: Beliefs and Believing TYPE: Conceptual

Kelly’s first pregnancy was a disaster by most people’s standards. Her water broke 24 weeks into the pregnancy, she delivered the baby 15 weeks premature, and he survived but with multiple physical and behavioral health problems that take enormous resources to tackle. Yet every time Kelly takes the baby to the doctor, she notices other families with worse situations–children with terminal illnesses or more profound disabilities. Kelly is using ____ to cope with her baby’s complications.

a.	assumptive worlds
b.	downward comparisons
c.	presumptive reasoning
d.	stigmatization

ANS: B DIF: Difficult REF: Beliefs and Believing TYPE: Applied

The act of comparing oneself to people who are worse off is called a(n) ____.

a.	downward comparison
b.	upward comparison
c.	post-decision dissonance
d.	effort justification

ANS: A DIF: Easy REF: Beliefs and Believing TYPE: Factual

Social psychology as a science can ____.

a.	help refute most religious beliefs.
b.	speak to which religious beliefs are true and which are false
c.	explain why some people accept or reject certain religious beliefs
d.	determine which religion is the correct one

ANS: C DIF: Easy REF: Beliefs and Believing TYPE: Conceptual

Which of the following is NOT one of the benefits of religious belief discussed in your text?

a.	It can help explain what happens after death.
b.	It can help explain why a misfortune has occurred.
c.	It provides a stress-coping mechanism.
d.	It reduces one’s sense of guilt and fear.

ANS: D DIF: Moderate REF: Beliefs and Believing TYPE: Conceptual

Research on religious beliefs shows that appealing to a higher (superordinate) power can be an effective way to reduce ____.

a.	the mere exposure effect
b.	belief perseverance
c.	attitude polarization
d.	dissonance

ANS: D DIF: Moderate REF: Beliefs and Believing TYPE: Conceptual

As discussed in the text, people who hold irrational attitudes (e.g., about Big Foot, UFOs, and ghosts) tend to ____.

a.	be less prone to depression than other people
b.	be less prone to anxiety than other people
c.	have relatively low levels of self-esteem
d.	have relatively high levels of self-esteem

ANS: C DIF: Moderate REF: Beliefs and Believing TYPE: Factual

Who is the most likely to be anxious, depressed, and/or low in self-esteem?

a.	June, who believes she will be a doctor someday
b.	Marsha, who is a devout Hindu
c.	Holly, who believes in UFOs
d.	Brendan, who holds Christian beliefs but doesn’t practice them much

ANS: C DIF: Difficult REF: Beliefs and Believing TYPE: Applied

As discussed in the text, there are a number of cognitive tendencies found among gamblers that have the effect of encouraging these people to keep gambling. One of the MOST common is the tendency to see losses as ____.

a.	“near wins” (not losses at all)
b.	“par for the course” (as a certain number of losses are expected)
c.	“practice runs” (helping to improve technique in the long term)
d.	“not their fault” (special exceptions due to circumstances)

ANS: A DIF: Moderate REF: Beliefs and Believing TYPE: Conceptual

As discussed in the text, gamblers use tricks to ____.

a.	make decisions based on cognitive reasoning
b.	recover from losses and to learn from wins
c.	maintain the euphoria of risk-taking
d.	remain confident that they will win in the future.

ANS: D DIF: Moderate REF: Beliefs and Believing TYPE: Conceptual

Which statement about humans and animals is most correct?

a.	Only humans have attitudes.
b.	Both humans and animals have attitudes in about equal numbers.
c.	Animals have more attitudes than humans.
d.	Humans have more attitudes than animals.

ANS: D DIF: Moderate

REF: What Makes Us Human? Putting the Cultural Animal in Perspective TYPE: Conceptual

The pressure to maintain consistency among beliefs and behaviors is ____.

a.	equally present among humans versus animals
b.	more present in animals than humans
c.	more present in humans than animals
d.	rarely present in humans or animals

ANS: C DIF: Moderate

REF: What Makes Us Human? Putting the Cultural Animal in Perspective TYPE: Conceptual

TRUE/FALSE

Consumer surveys (e.g., questionnaires that ask people what products they like and use) are primarily used to measure people’s implicit attitudes.

ANS: F DIF: Moderate

REF: What Are Attitudes and Why Do People Have Them? TYPE: Conceptual

Research in social cognition has more or less suggested that evaluation is part of perception.

ANS: T DIF: Moderate

REF: What Are Attitudes and Why Do People Have Them? TYPE: Conceptual

Research indicates that students who enter college knowing their likes and dislikes on academically relevant issues tend to experience better physical and mental health in the college setting than do other students.

ANS: T DIF: Moderate

REF: What Are Attitudes and Why Do People Have Them? TYPE: Factual

The mere exposure effect occurs for stimuli that are presented at a conscious level, but it does not occur for stimuli that are presented at a nonconscious (subliminal) level.

ANS: F DIF: Moderate REF: How Attitudes Are Formed TYPE: Conceptual

Research suggests that learning via classical conditioning is unique to humans (and that other animals cannot learn this way).

ANS: F DIF: Moderate REF: How Attitudes Are Formed TYPE: Factual

Another term for “social learning” is “instrumental learning.”

ANS: F DIF: Moderate REF: How Attitudes Are Formed TYPE: Factual

According to balance theory (P-O-X theory), if Greg likes Tom and Tom likes Ximena, then Greg must also like Ximena.

ANS: T DIF: Easy REF: Consistency TYPE: Applied

Iris is a vegetarian, but she was forced (at gunpoint) to eat a steak last night. Research suggests that even under these highly unusual circumstances, she will still feel dissonance and try to rationalize her steak-eating to reduce this dissonance.

ANS: F DIF: Moderate REF: Consistency TYPE: Applied

Attitude accessibility refers to how easily an attitude comes to mind.

ANS: T DIF: Easy REF: Do Attitudes Really Predict Behaviors?

TYPE: Factual

The so-called “A-B problem” refers to the fact that people’s stated attitudes are often inconsistent with their behaviors.

ANS: T DIF: Moderate REF: Do Attitudes Really Predict Behaviors?

TYPE: Factual

Research indicates that men show less attitude-behavior consistency than women when it comes to sexuality.

ANS: F DIF: Moderate REF: Do Attitudes Really Predict Behaviors?

TYPE: Factual

Jeanne believes that her son is a genius. He takes multiple difference IQ tests and scores below average. He performs poorly in school and shows little creativity at home. He does not excel at anything he does. Yet Jeanne continues to belief in his superior intellect. Jeanne is illustrating belief perseverance.

ANS: T DIF: Moderate REF: Beliefs and Believing TYPE: Applied

“The world is perfect” is one of the assumptive worlds identified by Janoff-Bulman (1992).

ANS: F DIF: Moderate REF: Beliefs and Believing TYPE: Conceptual

Martin’s wife died suddenly in a traumatic accident. He believes it was a senseless death with no point. Jack’s wife died in a similar manner. Jack believes his wife’s death has provided an opportunity for the family to develop a foundation serving others with her life insurance benefits. Jack and Martin will probably cope equally well with their tragic circumstances.

ANS: F DIF: Easy REF: Beliefs and Believing TYPE: Applied

Religious beliefs have no psychological benefit.

ANS: F DIF: Easy REF: Beliefs and Believing

COMPLETION

Ethan says that he likes rap music, but he never seems to listen to it when he is on his own, and he becomes visibly tense whenever rap is playing at a party. Thus, even though Ethan is outwardly favorable toward rap, it is probably case that he has a negative ____________________ attitude toward it.

ANS: automatic

DIF: Moderate REF: What Are Attitudes and Why Do People Have Them?

TYPE: Applied

Social psychologists use the term ____________________ attitudes to refer to the fact that people have two types of attitudes—automatic attitudes and deliberate attitudes—that are not always consistent with one another.

ANS: dual

DIF: Moderate REF: What Are Attitudes and Why Do People Have Them?

TYPE: Conceptual

There is a stray cat in your neighborhood that you see every few days. At first, you did not really care about the cat at all. But, over time, as you saw her more and more, you began to develop warm and fuzzy feelings toward the cat. It appears that your attitudes toward the cat shifted as a result of the ____________________ effect.

ANS: mere exposure

DIF: Moderate REF: How Attitudes Are Formed TYPE: Conceptual

Early research on classical conditioning was performed with dogs. In certain variations of this research, experimenters repeatedly presented dogs with meat powder just after ringing a bell. The dogs (who would naturally salivate after being exposed to meat powder) learned to associate the bell with the meat powder, and began to salivate as soon as they heard the bell. In the language of classical conditioning, the meat powder in this research served as a(n) ____________________.

ANS: unconditioned stimulus

DIF: Moderate REF: How Attitudes Are Formed TYPE: Applied

Research has demonstrated that people are more likely to imitate behaviors if they have seen others rewarded for performing those behaviors, and less likely to imitate behaviors if they have seen others punished for performing those behaviors. This type of learning is known as ____________________.

ANS: social learning

vicarious conditioning

observational learning

DIF: Moderate REF: How Attitudes Are Formed TYPE: Conceptual

Fritz Heider’s balance theory is also sometimes referred to as the ____________________ theory.

ANS: P-O-X

POX

DIF: Difficult REF: Consistency TYPE: Factual

Iris is a vegetarian, but she ate a steak last night. Because of this hypocritical behavior, Iris is likely to experience a state of discomfort known as ____________________.

ANS: cognitive dissonance

DIF: Moderate REF: Consistency TYPE: Applied

According to____________________, if you go through a severe hazing process, you will be more loyal to the group you are joining.

ANS: effort justification

DIF: Easy REF: Consistency TYPE: Applied

Within a year after marrying, Kayla is unhappy in her marriage, yet she spends a lot of time talking to herself about how the marriage was the right thing for her to do. “It’s better than being alone, and at least he isn’t a total loser,” she says to herself. Kayla is experiencing ____________________.

ANS: post-decision dissonance

DIF: Moderate REF: Consistency TYPE: Applied

Research on gender and sexuality indicates that ____________________ show less consistency than ____________________ in terms of (a) their stated attitudes about sex and (b) their actual behaviors.

ANS: women men

DIF: Moderate REF: What Are Attitudes and Why Do People Have Them? TYPE: Factual

According to the research of Ajzen and Fishbein (1977), if you want to predict a specific behavior, you should measure a(n) ____________________.

ANS: specific attitude

DIF: Difficult REF: Do Attitudes Really Predict Behaviors? TYPE: Conceptual

The ease with which an attitude comes to mind is called ____________________.

ANS: attitude accessibility

DIF: Easy REF: Do Attitudes Really Predict Behaviors? TYPE: Factual

Ingrid believes there is a dog in the car. Even after she has looked absolutely everywhere in the car, and found no evidence whatsoever of a dog, she continues to believe this. This scenario MOST clearly exemplifies the notion of ____________________.

ANS: belief perseverance

DIF: Moderate REF: Beliefs and Believing TYPE: Applied

Social psychologists use the word ____________________ to refer to how people deal with traumas and return, post-trauma, to healthy, effective functioning.

ANS: coping

DIF: Easy REF: Beliefs and Believing TYPE: Factual

If you want to cope better with tragedy, you should engage in ____________________comparisons with others.

ANS: downward

DIF: Moderate REF: Beliefs and Believing TYPE: Conceptual

ESSAY

Distinguish between automatic attitudes and deliberate attitudes. How do they function and what purposes do they serve? How do they relate to one another? How can they be measured?

ANS:

a.	Automatic attitudes: Quick and unconscious. These attitudes consist of immediate evaluations of almost all stimuli encountered, as well as “deep down,” uncensored attitudes that people possess toward a variety of phenomena. They are rough, positive-negative evaluations that help to guide behaviors and (deliberate) attitudes. They can be measured via the IAT or other tests that assess automatic responding.
b.	Deliberate attitudes: Controlled and conscious. These attitudes consist of conscious revisions to automatic evaluations. People do not necessarily have deliberate attitudes about everything, however. Forming a deliberate attitude requires (at least a small amount of) dedicated time and effort. Deliberate attitudes are relatively more censored than automatic attitudes, and relatively more refined, or nuanced. They help to guide preferences, behaviors, etc. They can be measured via traditional paper-and-pencil surveys and/or by simply asking people about their attitudes.
c.	Automatic and deliberate attitudes are often in conflict. Many times, however, people are unaware of these conflicts, as they are consciously familiar only with their deliberate attitudes.

DIF: Difficult REF: What Are Attitudes and Why Do People Have Them?

TYPE: Conceptual

Explain the conditions under which the mere exposure effect holds true.

ANS:

a.	The mere exposure effect holds true in general for most cases.
b.	The conditions under which the mere exposure effect will not hold true are primarily when a person already has an initially unfavorable attitude towards the attitude object. In this case, repeated exposure will enhance the already present dislike rather than result in liking.
c.	This pattern holds for nearly all types of stimuli—be they persons, nonsense words, music, etc. It also holds true for animals as well as people. Even crickets have shown the mere exposure effect in experimentation.

DIF: Easy REF: How Attitudes Are Formed TYPE: Conceptual

Distinguish between classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and social learning. How do they work and how do they differ from one another?

ANS:

a.	Classical conditioning: Associative learning. After a novel stimulus is repeatedly paired with a familiar stimulus, people (or animals) learn to associate the two stimuli, and to respond to the novel stimulus in anticipation of the familiar stimulus. This type of learning is simply about mentally associating two things.
b.	Operant conditioning: Instrumental learning. After rewards (or punishments) repeatedly occur following certain behaviors, people (or animals) learn to engage in those behaviors more and more often (or less and less often).This type of learning is about the effect of rewards and punishments on behavior.
c.	Social learning: Vicarious or observational learning. After observing that rewards (or punishments) are repeatedly conferred upon others after they have performed certain behaviors, people (or animals) learn to engage in those behaviors more and more often (or less and less often).This type of learning is the same as operant conditioning except that the learning happens by observing others (as opposed to by direct experience).

DIF: Moderate REF: How Attitudes Are Formed TYPE: Conceptual

Discuss cognitive dissonance theory. What does the theory say, and what kinds of predictions does it make?

ANS:

a.	Cognitive dissonance theory suggests that people have a drive for consistency.
b.	When people find that they hold inconsistent attitudes and/or have engaged in behaviors that are inconsistent with their attitudes, they are thought to experience a state of cognitive dissonance (unpleasant arousal) that they are then motivated to reduce.
	i.	People only experience cognitive dissonance when they feel as though they willingly chose to engage in the inconsistent behavior and/or hold the inconsistent attitude.
c.	People tend to reduce cognitive dissonance by shifting their attitudes, although they may also do other things to try to reduce dissonance.
	i.	People only engage in this type of remedial action when they experience dissonance and attribute the dissonance to the inconsistency.
	ii.	They are especially likely to engage in remedial action when their inconsistency is public.

DIF: Difficult REF: Consistency TYPE: Conceptual

Much research suggests that people’s attitudes are not predictive of their behaviors. However, in some cases, people’s attitudes ARE highly predictive of their behaviors. Identify at least three factors that increase attitude-behavior consistency.

ANS:

a.	Measuring more specific attitudes (or more general behaviors)
	i.	While the relationship between general attitudes (helping people) and specific behaviors (giving blood on Thursday) can be weak, the relationship between general attitudes and general behaviors (behaviors aggregated across time and situations) can be strong, as can the relationship between specific attitudes and specific behaviors.
b.	Putting attitudes and behaviors in context
	i.	While there might be a weak relationship between an attitude (helping people) and a relevant behavior (giving blood), this is sometimes because people do not think of certain attitudes and behaviors in the same way that researchers do. To the extent that people can be reminded that certain behaviors involve certain attitudes and vice-versa, attitude-behavior consistency is likely to be greater.
c.	Increasing attitude accessibility
	i.	When people’s attitudes are made salient, they behave more in line with them.

DIF: Difficult REF: Do Attitudes Really Predict Behaviors? TYPE: Conceptual

Briefly discuss the research on cognitive coping. When people experience traumas, what sorts of cognitive responses are likely to be most helpful in promoting recovery?

ANS:

a.	Beliefs that violate assumptive worlds are especially detrimental.
b.	Coming up with an explanation—any explanation—is important. To the extent that people feel that there is no explanation for the trauma, or that it was completely random or arbitrary, they are likely to feel helpless and vulnerable.
	i.	Blaming oneself—counter to intuition—can actually help people reclaim a sense of self-control and power, and move on from the trauma.
c.	In addition to working to restore self-esteem and a sense of self-control, effective coping also involves
	i.	making downward comparisons rather than upward comparison
	ii.	finding meaning or purpose to the trauma
d.	While optimism does not appear to be especially beneficial, there is evidence that pessimism is detrimental to recovery; thus, avoiding a pessimistic outlook is critical.

DIF: Moderate REF: Beliefs and Believing TYPE: Applied

Explain the potential benefits and costs of holding strong religious beliefs.

ANS:

a.	Religious beliefs can play very helpful roles in people’s lives. Religion often provides a sense of explanation or an answer in situations in which science cannot provide that meaning. As such, religious belief can help people cope with tragedy or misfortune. Religion can also provide social support or a sense of community to people who practice the religion or worship together. People often find a sense of purpose in their religious beliefs that helps direct their time into meaningful, productive activity. Finally, religious beliefs can help people reduce the unpleasant state of dissonance.
b.	Socially, religious beliefs often promote values that benefit the collective—honesty, integrity, and so forth.
c.	Yet even with these benefits, people may find that religion doesn’t always result in reduced dissonance. Sometimes two religious beliefs may be in conflict, creating dissonance for a person. Sometimes religious beliefs can promote guilt and shame, hardly a pleasant state in which to find oneself. Finally, religious belief may result in anger at God if tragedy or misfortune befalls a person. Although ultimately religious belief may provide the benefit of an explanation for the tragedy, it may also result in the negative emotion of anger.

DIF: Difficult REF: Beliefs and Believing TYPE: Conceptual

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