Criminology Today An Integrative Introduction 8th Edition By Schmalleger - Test Bank

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Chapter 5

Biosocial and Other Contemporary Perspectives

 

CHAPTER OVERVIEW

 

The Human Genome Project (HGP) was designed to construct detailed maps of the human genome.  After the HGP was completed, research began to focus on finding individual variants from the reference human genome.  HGP-related information may have significant implications for crime-control policy. Genetic researchers have isolated a genetic mutation that may be linked to criminal behavior; the gene is responsible for the production of MAO-A, an enzyme that breaks down neurotransmitters and men with the mutated gene do not produce enough of the enzyme. Later research has identified a significant biosocial interaction between MAO-A and early childhood abuse, leading to violence later in life.  Other genetic researchers have also found links between specific genes and deviant, violent, and addictive behaviors.  However, this does not mean that “criminal genes” inevitably produce antisocial behavior; they may simply influence the way in which people respond to their surroundings.  Genes are both the cause and consequence of our actions – they enable rather than determine human action.

Researchers are also exploring how brain dysfunction relates to criminality.  PET scans of the brains of murderers have found prefrontal cortex dysfunction, compared to members of a control group, and the volume of the amygdala and the size of the prefrontal cortex are reduced in psychopaths when compared to nonpsychopaths. Other brain mechanisms that may be involved in aggression include allergic reactions to common foods that may produce swelling in the brain and brain stem.  Physical injuries, emotional trauma, and long-term exposure to stress can also produce changes in the brain. The concept of neuroplasticity has been advanced as a way to explain why some people experience significant personality changes while undergoing new experiences.  Neuroplasticity suggests that the brain can alter its structure and function in response to new experiences; scientists now suggest that the brain is also malleable in response to internal stimuli (e.g., thought).  Other studies have also found positive changes in the brain; for example, the brain waves of practiced meditators were found to be significantly different from those of nonmeditators.

Researchers have also linked violent or disruptive behavior to body chemistry. Criminal behavior has been linked to factors such as sugar or coffee consumption, food additives, vitamin deficiencies, and other nutrients.  Environmental pollution of lead, manganese, and other toxic metals also has been linked to violent crime.  Prenatal exposure to substances such as tobacco smoke, alcohol, and marijuana have been found to be related to various behavioral factors, including delinquency.  Psychobiotics is a new field of study looking at the effects of bacteria on emotions and behavior, with a particular focus on gut bacteria.  Various hormones, such as testosterone, serotonin, and cortisol, have been shown to be associated with aggression.  Low resting heart rate appears to be associated with antisocial behavior among males, and there appears to be a link between heightened galvanic skin response and negative and antisocial qualities.  Temperature also has been found to have an influence on both violent and property crime, although it is moderated by temporal factors such as the time of day and day of the week.

A recent synthesis of biological and environmental factors was presented by James Q. Wilson and Richard Herrnstein in their book Crime and Human Nature.  They identified a number of constitutional factors, such as gender, age, body type, intelligence, and personality, as contributing to crime.  Later biosocial criminologists emphasized the importance of the interaction between biology and the environment in the formation of behavioral responses to given situations and stress that biosocial perspectives are theories of criminality, not crime.

Gender differences in criminal behavior have remained extremely regular over time, refuting claims of early gender gap researchers such as Freda Adler, who suggested that cultural changes producing increased opportunity for female criminality would lead to an increase in crimes by women. Biosocial criminologists suggest that gender itself may be responsible for the observed differences. However, genetically based behavioral differences between the two genders appear to be moderated by various aspects of the social environment.

An evolutionary perspective is one that tries to explain behavior with reference to human evolutionary history and also recognizes the influence genes have over human traits.  Evolutionary neuroandrogenic theory suggests that the propensity for crime commission evolved as part of the male reproductive strategy and that a particular neurochemistry, which is characteristic of males, increases the probability of male criminality relative to females.

It is only recently that the standard social science model, which assumes humans are born “blank slates” and acquire values, behavioral patterns, and modes of thought through socialization, gave way to broader perspectives incorporating the role of biology and genetic influences on human behavior.  While there are almost certainly no genes for criminal behavior, which is extremely complex, many genes may affect brain functioning in ways that increase or reduce the chances of individuals learning various complex behavior patterns, including those that may lead to criminal sanctioning.

Biological and biosocial approaches have generated considerable controversy.  Contemporary criminologists have provided focused critiques of biological perspectives on crime, including methodological and other concerns.  It does appear that various biological factors are correlated with various measures of criminal behavior, although the influence of social factors has overshadowed the relationship.

 

 

LEARNING OUTCOMES

 

After reading this chapter, students should be able to answer the following questions:

• What was the purpose of the Human Genome Project (HGP), and what is its significance for modern biological theories of crime?
• What role do genetics and heritability play in contemporary explanations for crime?
• How does brain dysfunction relate to criminality?
• How do body chemistry theories – including those involving diet, blood sugar levels, environmental contaminants, and hormones – explain crime?
• What are biosocial theories, and what role does the gender ratio problem play in contemporary criminology?
• What are the policy implications of modern biological theories of crime?

 

 

LECTURE OUTLINE

 

1. Introduction

 

1. The Human Genome Project is an international research program designed to construct detailed maps of the human genome; it was officially declared completed in 2003

 

1. The HGP marked the beginning of a new era of research into human biology and changed understandings of human nature, disease, cognition, and behavior

 

1. The Human Genome Project

 

1. The human genome refers to a complete copy of the entire set of human gene instructions
   1. Genes are made of DNA and carry coded instructions for making everything the body needs
   2. Chromosomes are bundles of genes
   3. The focus has now turned to finding individual differences or variants from the reference human genome that was developed by the HGP

 

1. Genetic knowledge can have significant implications for criminal justice
   1. Many of the questions raised about the role of genetics in behavior may be answered by the results of research begun by the HGP
   2. HGP-related information is expected to support the development of public policy options related to crime prevention and offender treatment
   3. Go to www.youtube.com and watch the video “Social Implications of Expanding Genomic Knowledge,” on GenomeTV. The video was produced by the National Institutes of Health.
   4. Go to www.youtube.com and watch the video “Ethical, Legal and Social Implications of Genetic Knowledge,” on GenomeTV. The video was produced by the National Institutes of Health.

 

• Genetics and Heritability

 

1. Research in the Netherlands by Ropers, Brunner, and collaborators into a criminal family has found that male descendants had near-normal IQs but showed a high proportion of arrests for violations of the criminal law
   1. Ropers and Brunner suggest that because males have only one X chromosome, they are more vulnerable to any defective gene, while women (with two X chromosomes) have a sort of backup system
   2. They claim to have isolated the specific gene responsible for the family’s criminality: the one responsible for production of the enzyme MAO-A
      1. MAO-A breaks down the neurotransmitters serotonin and noradrenaline; excess amounts of these chemicals have been linked to aggressive behavior
      2. If the body does not produce this enzyme, the brain is overwhelmed with stimulation, resulting in uncontrollable urges and criminal behavior

 

1. Researchers at the University of Texas have discovered a pleasure-seeking gene that may play a role in deviant behavior
   1. The gene is normally involved in controlling dopamine flow
   2. When defective, the allele of the gene diminishes dopamine function, which may lead people to engage in activities that produce a dopamine-like experience, like drinking or using drugs

 

1. Caspi, Moffitt, and colleagues have proposed a gene-environment interaction model
   1. They recognized that childhood maltreatment appears to be a universal risk factor in adulthood but noted that not all maltreated children grow up to be criminal
   2. They hypothesized that the development of antisocial behavior was mediated by an interaction between a gene responsible for MAO-A production and maltreatment (an environmental variable)
   3. The finding that maltreated children with high MAO-A did not develop antisocial behavior was supported by several international studies
   4. Other researchers have also found significant biosocial interaction between MAO-A and early child abuse, leading to violence later in life
   5. Basically, in some cases, it appears that genetic predispositions and their interaction with the surrounding social and physical environments combine to produce delinquency
   6. Go to the website of the Australian Broadcasting Corporation (www.abc.net.au) and listen to the podcast, “The Crime Gene,” which discusses the first court case in the world to acknowledge genetics as a factor in criminal behavior.
   7. Go to www.youtube.com and watch the video, “Born to Rage?” which is a documentary on the warrior gene.

 

1. In 2011, Fontaine and colleagues reported that heritability leads to persistently high levels of callous-unemotional behavior among twin boys
   1. A similar study examining differences in self-control between male and female twins concluded that there are genetic differences in self-control that operate across the sexes in both adolescence and adulthood.
   2. The results of this study showed that genetic influences on self-control are not gender-specific

 

1. Future Directions in the Study of Genes and Crime
   1. The explanatory power of heritability appears to be limited by the fact that it may apply only to specific environments that existed at the time of a given study
   2. If the population or the environment changes, the heritability may change also
   3. Genes shape people but are also influenced by the environment, creating a feedback loop
   4. Genes appear to be both the cause and consequence of our actions – they enable rather than determine human action

 

1. The Dysfunctional Brain

 

1. Some contemporary researchers have explored brain dysfunction as it relates to criminality
   1. Some research using PET scans to examine the prefrontal cortex of the brain has found that murderers had lower levels of glucose uptake in the prefrontal cortex than controls
   2. However, because prefrontal cortex dysfunction may result in various social and educational problems, it may not be a direct cause of crime, but may predispose someone to crime and violence
   3. This approach has become known as neurocriminology, a perspective examining the neurological links between the organism, social factors, and criminal behavior.
   4. Other studies of the orbital cortex have produced results leading to the frontal brain hypothesis, that a gene defect that leads to a communications breakdown in the brain predisposes people to schizophrenia

 

1. Other brain mechanisms may also be involved in aggression
   1. Food allergies and food additives have also been associated with criminal violence – allergic reactions to some foods lead to a swelling of the brain and brain stem, which may reduce the amount of learning during childhood and may contribute to delinquency and adult crime
   2. Physical injuries, emotional trauma, disease, and long-term exposure to stress can also lead to changes in the brain
   3. Stressors in the social environment are linked to brain structure

 

1. Recently, some scientists have advanced the concept of neuroplasticity (brain plasticity, cortical plasticity) to explain why some people experience significant personality changes while undergoing new experiences
   1. Neuroplasticity suggests that the brain can alter its structure and function in response to new experiences
   2. Scientists suggest that the brain is also malleable in response to internal stimuli (e.g., thought)

 

1. Body Chemistry and Criminality

 

1. Ingested Substances and Nutrition
   1. Hypoglycemia (low blood sugar) has been linked to hyperactivity, aggressiveness, and crime; however, at the moment, the evidence regarding sugar’s impact on behavior is unclear
   2. Some food additives (MSG, food dyes, artificial flavorings) have been implicated in producing criminal violence
   3. Caffeine and sugar may trigger antisocial behavior, although the research is unclear as to the direction of the relationship
   4. Diets deficient in various vitamins and other nutrients can increase aggressiveness and agitation and open the door to crime
   5. The relationship between other nutrients (e.g., omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids) and behavior has also been assessed

 

1. Environmental Pollution
   1. Various substances found in the environment have been linked to criminal behavior
   2. A 1997 research study suggested that high levels of various environmental and industrial pollutants (particularly lead and manganese) may cause people to commit violent crime
   3. A study of lead contamination found that the level of exposure to lead was a reliable predictor of the number and seriousness of juvenile offenses and the number of adult offenses.
   4. Prenatal substance exposure to marijuana, tobacco smoke, alcohol, etc., appear to be linked to problems both in childhood and later in life

 

1. Psychobiotics
   1. A new field of study looking at the psychological and behavioral effects of bacterial on the mind, feelings, emotions, and behavior.
   2. The central focus is on gut bacteria that live in the digestive system and produce chemical messengers that interact with the brain and nervous system.
   3. Researchers suggest that introducing the proper bacteria into the digestive system could produce positive effects on mood and behavior.
   4. Go to www.youtube.com and watch the TED Talk “Heribert Watzke: The Brain in Your Gut”
   5. Go to www.youtube.com and watch the video, “Gut Bacteria and Mind Control”

 

1. Hormones and Criminality
   1. Hormone – a chemical substance produced by the body that regulates and controls the activity of certain cells or organs
   2. Testosterone, a male sex hormone, has been linked to aggression
      1. Most research consistently has shown a relationship between high blood testosterone levels and increased male aggressiveness, although it may be mediated by the influence of testosterone on social integration and on prior involvement in juvenile delinquency
      2. Subtle changes in testosterone levels in women have also been linked to changes in personality and sexual behavior, but the research is limited
   3. Fluctuations in the level of female hormones may also have some relationship to law violation
   4. Serotonin
      1. Aggressive behavior in men may also be influenced by high testosterone levels combined with low brain levels of serotonin
      2. One study found that enhancing brain levels of serotonin was linked to decreases in aggression and impulsivity
      3. Other hormones (e.g., cortisol, thyroid hormone T₃) have also been found to be related to delinquency and poor impulse control
      4. Higher levels of oxytocin, the “trust hormone,” appear to make people more trusting; researchers have suggested con men might use this to manipulate their victims
   5. Low Resting Heart Rate
      1. People who consistently engage in antisocial behavior tend to exhibit low resting heart rates, even at a very young age.
      2. Heart rate is determined by the ANS – low rates of autonomic arousal are closely associated with various forms of antisocial behavior.
      3. However, while the link between low resting heart rate and crime is well established, it has not been fully explained.
      4. Low resting heart rate appears to be associated with antisocial behavior only among males, not females.
      5. Other physiological conditions that have no relationship to antisocial behavior, such as athletic conditioning, may also result in low resting heart rate.
   6. Galvanic Skin Responses
      1. Researchers have found a direct relationship between sympathetic nervous system activity and emotional arousal
      2. One way to measure the type of activity is skin conductivity, or galvanic skin response (GSR), which is also used in lie detectors
      3. Researchers found that heightened skin resistance was correlated with the presence of negative and antisocial qualities in the subjects being studied
      4. However, while the link between low resting heart rate and crime is well established, it has not been fully explained.
      5. Low resting heart rate appears to be associated with antisocial behavior only among males, not females.
      6.   Other physiological conditions that have no relationship to antisocial behavior, such as athletic conditioning, may also result in low resting heart rate.
   7. Climate, Weather, and Crime
      1. Research into the relationship between weather and criminal behavior suggests that temperature is the only weather variable consistently and reliably related to crime
      2. Field research generally has found a definite positive correlation between temperature and violent crime, which appears to be moderated by temporal factors such as time of day, day of week, and season
      3. Cohn and Rotton have found temperature to be related to crimes such as assault, property offenses, domestic violence, and disorderly conduct
      4. Their results are consistent with predictions that might be derived from routine activities theory
         • Uncomfortably hot and cold temperatures keep people apart, reducing the contact between motivated offenders and suitable targets
         • Temporal variables moderate the relationship between temperature and crime by also affecting opportunity
      5. Other research suggests a link between barometric pressure and criminal offending
      6. Recent research found an historical correlation between high temperatures, extreme rainfall patterns, and violence

 

1. Biosocial Criminology

 

1. In 1985, James Q. Wilson and Richard Herrnstein wrote Crime and Human Nature, a revival of biological criminology
   1. The purpose of the book was in part to revive discussions of biological causes of crime and move away from a totally sociological explanation
   2. They cited a variety of constitutional factors which contribute to crime, including gender, age, body type, intelligence, and personality
   3. They also recognized social factors in the development of personality but suggested that constitutional factors predispose one to specific types of behavior and that societal reactions to such predispositions may determine the form of continued behavior

 

1. Andrew Walsh is a major proponent of biosocial criminology
   1. He emphasizes the importance of recognizing the interaction of biology and the environment in the formation of behavioral responses to given situations
   2. He says that biological factors do not operate in an environmental vacuum and environmental factors do not operate in a biological vacuum
   3. Diana Fishbein, a behavioral science expert also argues that biological factors interact dynamically with social and environmental conditions to contribute to or insulate from social dysfunction

 

1. Gender Differences in Criminality
   1. The gender ratio problem relates to the differences between female and male rates of offending – for nearly all crimes, the number of crimes committed by men far exceeds the number of crimes committed by women
   2. The data on the extent of male-female criminality has been surprisingly stable over time
   3. Suggestions that culture plays the major role in determining criminality are contradicted by the fact that the proportion of women participating in crime has remained fairly constant over a long period of time, despite cultural changes that have created new opportunities for women in crime
   4. Although female criminality is probably culturally determined to a great extent, biosocial criminologists suggest that the organic correlates of gender provide the needed explanation
   5. The sexual selection paradigm seeks to explain male/female differences within species and suggest that gender socialization rests on a bedrock of sex-differentiated biology forged by thousands of years of contrasting sexual selection pressures

 

1. Evolutionary Neuroandrogenic Theory
   1. The evolutionary perspective:
      1. Seeks to explain behavior with reference to human evolutionary history
      2. Recognizes the influence genes have over human traits
   2. Researchers have suggested that behavioral traits result from multiple genes working independently and synergistically in response to the environment
   3. Ellis’s evolutionary neuroandrogenic theory has two propositions:
      1. The propensity for crime commission evolved among humans as part of the male reproductive strategy
      2. A particular neurochemistry, characteristic of males, increases the probability of criminality among males relative to females

 

• Policy Implications of Biological Theories

 

1. MIT cognitive scientist Steven Pinker claims that social scientists unjustly ignore the biological basis of human behavior
   1. He suggests that it has been replaced with three myths:
      1. The myth of the blank slate holds that the human mind has no innate traits and that personality is fully malleable by society
      2. The myth of the Noble Savage says human nature is essentially good
      3. The Ghost in the Machine myth holds that each person has an individual soul-like quality that can make choices that can be completely independent of any biological predispositions
   2. According to Pinker, these myths make up the modern social science model and have led to misguided policies
   3. Effective social policies cannot be developed until the impact of biology on human behavior is recognized

 

1. Ellis and Walsh have attempted to bring biological theorizing into the criminological mainstream
   1. They point out that in the case of behavior, nearly all effects of genes are indirect because they are mediated through complex chains of events occurring in the brain
   2. There are almost certainly no genes for criminal behavior but genes may affect brain functioning in ways that increase or reduce the chances of individuals learning behavior patterns likely to result in criminal sanctioning

 

• Critiques of Biological and Biosocial Theories

 

1. Many biological and biosocial perspectives have been criticized because they fail to accurately predict criminality while claiming to understand its causes

 

1. Biosocial theories can be criticized in a number of ways, including methodological problems and difficulties in generalizing findings to other settings
   1. They do not explain regional and temporal variations in crime
   2. They cannot totally account for changes in crime rates over time or among different age groups within the same population

 

1. Biological theories focusing on environmental and chemical precursors to crime cannot explain why some types of crime are more likely to occur in certain parts of the country, in particular communities, or among members of specific subcultures rather than in others

 

1. Some biosocial criminologists have been accused of racial and class bias

 

 

LIST OF CHANGES/TRANSITION GUIDE

 

• A new concept, GxE, is discussed, which is a simple formula intended to highlight the fact that neither genes nor the environment is sufficient by themselves to explain antisocial behavior but that it is the interaction between the two that determines what happens in most circumstances.
• The concept of DNA methylation has also been introduced. “Neurocriminology” and “prefrontal cortex dysfunction” have been added as new key terms.
• A new Crime in the News Box has been included; it highlights the question “Is there a crime gene?”
• The “Crime in the News” box dealing with exposure to lead and criminality has been enhanced and contains a new image.
• Global data on homicides have been used to replace U.S. data on male/female perpetrators of homicides.
• Discussions of heart rate and crime, galvanic skin response (GSR), and psychobiotics have been added to the chapter.

 

 

ADDITIONAL ASSIGNMENTS AND CLASS ACTIVITIES

 

Additional Lecture Topics

 

Policy Implications of Biosocial Research for Criminology.  Discuss how knowledge of biological and genetic factors could impact criminal justice.  For example, in late 2013, a jury charged with deciding the sentence to be imposed upon John McCluskey, an offender who was convicted of carjacking and two murders committed after his escape from an Arizona prison, was unable to come to a unanimous decision on the death penalty. As a result, McCluskey received a sentence of life without parole.  The evidence presented to the sentencing jury included brain scans used by the defense to show that McCluskey had structural brain abnormalities that, combined with other factors, contributed to his crimes.  The defense argued that these abnormalities, along with other early childhood experiences, should be considered mitigating circumstances.

 

Student Activities

 

Activity #1: Nature vs. Nurture in the Criminal Justice System.

Your professor will place you into groups.  Each group is to visit the website of the Human Genome Project (www.genome.gov) and locate the exercise “Nature vs. Nurture in the Criminal Justice System” in the Online Education Kit.  Complete this exercise and bring your responses to class.  Discuss each groups responses and the reasoning behind their decisions.

 

Activity #2: Access by Law Enforcement.

Your professor will place you into groups.  Each group is to visit the website of the Human Genome Project (www.genome.gov) and locate the exercise “Access by Law Enforcement” in the Online Education Kit. Complete this exercise and bring your responses to class.  Discuss each group’s responses and the reasoning behind their decisions.

 

 

SUGGESTED ANSWERS TO END-OF-CHAPTER ASSIGNMENTS

 

Questions for Review

 

1. How strong are research findings linking genetics and crime? What have research studies in the field of genetics had to say about possible causes of crime?

 

While much of the early research into genetics and crime (see Chapter 4) has been discredited today, more recent research does appear to suggest a possible link between genetics and criminal behavior.  Some of the most important recent research in the field of genetics has come out of the Human Genome Project (HGP).  The HGP is leading scientists to embrace the view that genes enable, rather than cause, human behavior.  Early results include the discovery of a pleasure-seeking gene that may play a role in deviant behavior, addictions, and violence.  More recent research has found what appears to be significant biosocial interaction between MAOA and child abuse, leading to violence later in life.  Other researchers are finding genes that may be associated with various behaviors related to violence, substance abuse, and other antisocial behavior.

 

2. What is the gender ratio problem in criminology? What traditional explanations have been offered for the problem? Why is the gender ratio problem not a problem from the point of view of biosocial criminology?

 

The gender ratio problem refers to the need for an explanation of the fact that the number of crimes committed by men routinely far exceeds the number of crimes committed by women in almost all categories.

 

Traditional explanations tended to focus on culture; Freda Adler proposed that as women entered nontraditional occupations and roles, the gender gap in crime would narrow.  However, her theory lacks contemporary validation.

 

Biosocial criminologists say that the gender ratio problem is only a problem if researchers refuse to consider biological factors that differentiate among individuals.  They argue that if we admit that there is something about gender itself that is responsible for the observed differences, the problem is resolved.

 

3. How does brain dysfunction relate to criminality?

 

Research has shown that various types of brain dysfunctions may be related to antisocial and criminal behavior. Structural and functional damage to or differential functioning of certain areas of the brain, such as the amygdala, prefrontal cortex, orbital cortex, and anterior cingulate cortex (ACC).

 

For example, one study of murderers and attempted murderers found that they exhibited lower levels of glucose uptake in the prefrontal cortex than control subjects.  Prefrontal cortex dysfunction may be related to violence as it is associated with impulsivity, loss of self-control, immaturity, poor social judgment, and other factors.  Similarly, psychopaths have been found to exhibit reduction in the volume of the prefrontal cortex and amygdala, compared to non-psychopaths.  It appears that violent psychopathology in youth is associated with structural and functional damage to the orbital cortex of the brain.  Offenders with lower levels of activity in the ACC are significantly more likely to reoffend compared to those with higher levels of activity in that region of the brain.

 

4. What is biosocial criminology? How is criminality explained from a biosocial perspective?

 

Biosocial criminology is a theoretical perspective that perspective sees the interaction between biology and the physical and social environments as key to understanding human behavior, including criminality.

 

From a biosocial perspective, criminality is seen as a property of individuals – the willingness to violate individual rights and social norms, regardless of whether or not such behavior is against the law.  Biosocial explanations of criminality tend to focus on issues such as a propensity for violence, aggression, deceit, recklessness, fearlessness, etc., and there is an emphasis on the belief that features of the surrounding environment determine how such propensities will be expressed.

 

5. What are the social policy implications of biological and biosocial theories of crime? What modern-day social policies reflect the biological and biosocial approaches to crime causation?

 

Biological theories of crime suggest the possibility of social policies that are biologically based.  However, it will not be until the impact of biology on human behavior is fully recognized that effective social policies aimed at controlling crime can be developed.

 

Answers may vary.

 

6. What are the shortcomings of biological theories of criminal behavior? Why have biological approaches to crime causation encountered stiff criticism? 

 

Many biological and biosocial theories have been criticized because they fail to predict criminality while purporting to understand its causes.

 

Biosocial theories can be criticized in a number of ways.  These include:

• Methodological problems, such as the use of small and unrepresentative samples
• Difficulty in generalizing findings to other settings
• Difficulty in drawing definitive conclusions from small samples studied under unique conditions
• The failure of theories to explain regional and temporal variations in crime rates
• The inability of theories to explain why certain kinds of crime are more likely to occur in certain parts of the country, in particular types of communities, and among members of specific subcultures rather than in others

 

Some biosocial criminologists have been accused of racial and class bias for failing to explain why a disproportionate number of certain kinds of crime are committed by poor people and by racial and ethnic minorities.

 

 

Questions for Reflection

 

1. This text emphasizes the theme of social problems versus social responsibility. Which perspective is better supported by biosocial theories of crime causation? Why?

 

Answers will vary.

 

2. Past president of the American Society of Criminology C. Ray Jeffery once said: “Open inquiry requires objective consideration of all points of view and an unbiased examination of each for its ability to shed light on the subject under study.” Do you agree or disagree with this assertion?  Why is it especially relevant to biosocial theorizing in criminology?

 

Answers will vary.