Canadian Organizational Behaviour 10Th Canadian Edition By Steven McShane - Test Bank

Canadian Organizational Behaviour 10Th Canadian Edition By Steven McShane – Test Bank

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Sample Questions Are Posted Below

Chapter 05

Foundations of Employee Motivation

True / False Questions

Motivation is closely related to the concept of employee engagement.
TRUE

Difficulty: Easy
Learning Objective: 05-01 Define employee engagement.
Topic: 05-01 Employee Engagement

Motivation is one of the four essential drivers of individual behaviour and performance.
TRUE

Difficulty: Easy
Learning Objective: 05-01 Define employee engagement.
Topic: 05-01 Employee Engagement

Research indicates that employee engagement is associated with higher organizational citizenship.
TRUE

Difficulty: Easy
Learning Objective: 05-01 Define employee engagement.
Topic: 05-01 Employee Engagement

The definition of employee engagement is still in debate.
TRUE

Difficulty: Easy
Learning Objective: 05-01 Define employee engagement.
Topic: 05-01 Employee Engagement

The concept of employee engagement is related to motivation, but not role perception.
FALSE

Difficulty: Medium
Learning Objective: 05-01 Define employee engagement.
Topic: 05-01 Employee Engagement

According to a recent major survey, employee engagement is the most important human resources issue among major Canadian organizations.
TRUE

Difficulty: Medium
Learning Objective: 05-01 Define employee engagement.
Topic: 05-01 Employee Engagement

Actively disengaged employees tend to be disruptive at work, not just disconnected.
TRUE

Difficulty: Medium
Learning Objective: 05-01 Define employee engagement.
Topic: 05-01 Employee Engagement

Needs are described as goal-directed forces that people experience.
TRUE

Difficulty: Easy
Learning Objective: 05-02 Explain how human drives and emotions influence employee motivation.
Topic: 05-02 Employee Drives and Needs

Drives are also called secondary needs because they come before motivation.
FALSE

Difficulty: Medium
Learning Objective: 05-02 Explain how human drives and emotions influence employee motivation.
Topic: 05-02 Employee Drives and Needs

Drives are needs, and are essential parts of human psychology.
FALSE

Difficulty: Hard
Learning Objective: 05-02 Explain how human drives and emotions influence employee motivation.
Topic: 05-02 Employee Drives and Needs

In the context of motivation, drives are also called primary needs, fundamental needs, or innate needs.
TRUE

Difficulty: Medium
Learning Objective: 05-02 Explain how human drives and emotions influence employee motivation.
Topic: 05-02 Employee Drives and Needs

Individual differences explain why needs can be “learned” to some extent.
TRUE

Difficulty: Medium
Learning Objective: 05-02 Explain how human drives and emotions influence employee motivation.
Topic: 05-03 Individual Differences in Needs

Everyone has the same drives, they are hardwired in us through evolution.
TRUE

Difficulty: Easy
Learning Objective: 05-02 Explain how human drives and emotions influence employee motivation.
Topic: 05-03 Individual Differences in Needs

Needs are defined as goal-oriented forces that people experience.
TRUE

Difficulty: Easy
Learning Objective: 05-02 Explain how human drives and emotions influence employee motivation.
Topic: 05-02 Employee Drives and Needs

Needs hierarchy theory explains how people develop perceptions of fairness in the distribution and exchange of resources.
FALSE

Difficulty: Easy
Learning Objective: 05-03 Summarize Maslow’s needs hierarchy, and discuss the employee motivation implications of intrinsic versus extrinsic motivation, learned needs theory, and four-drive theory.
Topic: 05-05 Maslow’s Needs Hierarchy Theory

Maslow’s needs hierarchy theory incorporates only five basic categories.
TRUE

Maslow’s needs hierarchy theory states that people are motivated by only one need at a time.
FALSE

Difficulty: Medium
Learning Objective: 05-03 Summarize Maslow’s needs hierarchy, and discuss the employee motivation implications of intrinsic versus extrinsic motivation, learned needs theory, and four-drive theory.
Topic: 05-05 Maslow’s Needs Hierarchy Theory

According to needs hierarchy theory, the need for self-actualization continues to develop even when it is fulfilled.
TRUE

Abraham Maslow was the first to recognize that human thoughts play a role in motivation.
TRUE

Maslow is credited for bringing a mechanistic perspective to the study of motivation.
FALSE

Positive organizational behaviour focuses on teaching students the correct behaviours expected of them in modern work organizations.
FALSE

Maslow’s theory fails to account for the fact that people have different hierarchies.
TRUE

Maslow’s needs hierarchy theory failed to explain the dynamics of employee needs because they falsely assume that everyone fits into a single needs hierarchy.
TRUE

A person’s hierarchy of needs is influenced by his or her values.
TRUE

Behaviour is intrinsically motivated when it is anchored in our innate drives for competence and autonomy.
TRUE

Intrinsic motivation occurs when people are motivated for instrumental reasons to receive something that is beyond their personal control.
FALSE

Extrinsic sources of motivation include performance bonuses, recognition awards, and frequent reminders from the boss about work deadlines.
TRUE

David McClelland’s research on need for achievement concluded that all needs are instinctive and fixed for life.
FALSE

People with a high need for achievement tend to avoid risks and prefer working in teams.
FALSE

Successful entrepreneurs tend to have a high need for achievement.
TRUE

People with a high need for affiliation tend to be more effective in jobs that allocate scarce resources among employees.
FALSE

People with a high need for affiliation tend to be more effective in jobs that require them to mediate conflicts.
TRUE

According to learned needs theory, people with a high personalized need for power enjoy power for its own sake and use it to advance their career rather than to benefit others.
TRUE

According to learned needs theory, companies should hire leaders with a strong need for personalized power.
FALSE

Four-drive theory states that people have a hierarchy of needs that they progress through as lower level needs are fulfilled.
FALSE

Two drives identified in four-drive theory are the drive to acquire and the drive to bond.
TRUE

According to four-drive theory, three drives are proactive (i.e. we actively seek to fulfill them), whereas the drive to defend is reactive (activated only in reaction to threat).
TRUE

In four-drive theory, the drive to bond does not produce any emotional markers.
FALSE

According to four-drive theory, social norms, past experience, and personal values translate emotional signals into goal-directed effort.
TRUE

Difficulty: Hard
Learning Objective: 05-03 Summarize Maslow’s needs hierarchy, and discuss the employee motivation implications of intrinsic versus extrinsic motivation, learned needs theory, and four-drive theory.
Topic: 05-08 Four-Drive Theory

According to four-drive theory, organizations maximize motivation by focusing employees on opportunities to fulfill only one of the four drives.
FALSE

Four-drive theory recommends keeping all four drives in “balance”, that is, organizations should avoid too much or too little opportunity to fulfill each drive.
TRUE

Four-drive theory recommends that organizations rely on financial rewards rather than non-financial rewards to motivate employees.
FALSE

Expectancy theory of motivation states that people naturally direct their effort towards behaviours they believe are most likely to lead to desired outcomes.
TRUE

Difficulty: Easy
Learning Objective: 05-04 Discuss the expectancy theory model, including its practical implications.
Topic: 05-09 Expectancy Theory of Motivation

According to expectancy theory, employee motivation will remain high even when the P-to-O expectancy falls to zero.
FALSE

Difficulty: Medium
Learning Objective: 05-04 Discuss the expectancy theory model, including its practical implications.
Topic: 05-09 Expectancy Theory of Motivation

In expectancy theory, the performance-to-outcome expectancy represents the anticipated satisfaction or dissatisfaction that an individual places on an outcome.
FALSE

Difficulty: Medium
Learning Objective: 05-04 Discuss the expectancy theory model, including its practical implications.
Topic: 05-09 Expectancy Theory of Motivation

One way to increase an employee’s E-to-P expectancy regarding a specific task is to increase the person’s self-confidence through counselling and coaching.
TRUE

Difficulty: Medium
Learning Objective: 05-04 Discuss the expectancy theory model, including its practical implications.
Topic: 05-10 Expectancy Theory in Practice

According to expectancy theory, communicating the existence of a performance-based reward system motivates employees by increasing their outcome valences.
FALSE

Difficulty: Medium
Learning Objective: 05-04 Discuss the expectancy theory model, including its practical implications.
Topic: 05-10 Expectancy Theory in Practice

One of the main problems with expectancy theory of motivation is that it does not identify the ‘comparison other’ in the motivation process.
FALSE

Difficulty: Medium
Learning Objective: 05-04 Discuss the expectancy theory model, including its practical implications.
Topic: 05-10 Expectancy Theory in Practice

One way to increase a person’s P-to-O expectancy is to measure his or her job performance more accurately.
TRUE

Difficulty: Easy
Learning Objective: 05-04 Discuss the expectancy theory model, including its practical implications.
Topic: 05-10 Expectancy Theory in Practice

Expectancy theory is a useful model that explains motivation.
TRUE

Difficulty: Easy
Learning Objective: 05-04 Discuss the expectancy theory model, including its practical implications.
Topic: 05-10 Expectancy Theory in Practice

Expectancy theory identifies emotions as a key component of employee motivation.
FALSE

Difficulty: Medium
Learning Objective: 05-04 Discuss the expectancy theory model, including its practical implications.
Topic: 05-10 Expectancy Theory in Practice

Organizational behaviour modification emphasizes human thoughts rather than the environment as the source of all learning.
FALSE

Difficulty: Easy
Learning Objective: 05-05 Outline organizational behaviour modification (OB Mod) and social cognitive theory, and explain their relevance to employee motivation.
Topic: 05-12 Organizational Behaviour Modification

In behaviour modification, antecedents refer to environmental cues, informing employees that certain behaviours will have particular consequences.
TRUE

Negative reinforcement occurs when the introduction of a consequence increases or maintains the frequency or future probability of a behaviour.
FALSE

Difficulty: Medium
Learning Objective: 05-05 Outline organizational behaviour modification (OB Mod) and social cognitive theory, and explain their relevance to employee motivation.
Topic: 05-12 Organizational Behaviour Modification

Punishment decreases the frequency of future behaviour whereas negative reinforcement increases or maintains the frequency of future behaviour.
TRUE

Research has concluded that punishment and negative reinforcement should never be used in organizational settings.
FALSE

Punishment is the same as negative reinforcement.
FALSE

If you praise an employee every time after he or she has performed the job well, then extinction of the desired behaviours is less likely to occur after you stop giving any more praise.
FALSE

Difficulty: Hard
Learning Objective: 05-05 Outline organizational behaviour modification (OB Mod) and social cognitive theory, and explain their relevance to employee motivation.
Topic: 05-12 Organizational Behaviour Modification

Continuous reinforcement provides the most rapid learning of the targeted behaviour.
TRUE

The variable ratio schedule of reinforcement makes behaviour highly resistant to extinction.
TRUE

Behaviour modification is an effective strategy for helping employees to improve their decision making and other conceptual activities.
FALSE

One problem with behaviour modification programs is that some employees view the variable ratio schedule of reinforcement as a form of gambling, like a lottery.
TRUE

According to social cognitive theory, people can reinforce their own behaviour.
TRUE

The main problem with behavioural modelling is that it transfers explicit knowledge, but not tacit knowledge.
FALSE

According to social cognitive theory, people learn to anticipate consequences mainly by observing the experiences of other people.
TRUE

Behavioural modelling can increase an observer’s self-confidence.
TRUE

People self-regulate by engaging in self-reinforcement.
TRUE

Goal setting potentially improves employee performance by increasing motivation and clarifying role perceptions.
TRUE

Difficulty: Medium
Learning Objective: 05-06 Describe the characteristics of effective goal setting and feedback.
Topic: 05-14 Goal Setting and Feedback

Goal setting tends to be more effective when the goals are specific rather than general.
TRUE

Difficulty: Easy
Learning Objective: 05-06 Describe the characteristics of effective goal setting and feedback.
Topic: 05-14 Goal Setting and Feedback

Goal setting is more effective when employees can easily complete the goals assigned to them.
FALSE

Difficulty: Easy
Learning Objective: 05-06 Describe the characteristics of effective goal setting and feedback.
Topic: 05-14 Goal Setting and Feedback

The optimal level of goal difficulty occurs where the goal has more than a low level, but less than a moderate level of goal difficulty.
FALSE

Difficulty: Medium
Learning Objective: 05-06 Describe the characteristics of effective goal setting and feedback.
Topic: 05-14 Goal Setting and Feedback

Goals need to be measurable.
TRUE

Difficulty: Easy
Learning Objective: 05-06 Describe the characteristics of effective goal setting and feedback.
Topic: 05-14 Goal Setting and Feedback

Reviewing goal progress can be a source of motivation as well as learning.
TRUE

Difficulty: Medium
Learning Objective: 05-06 Describe the characteristics of effective goal setting and feedback.
Topic: 05-14 Goal Setting and Feedback

Feedback to employees is most effective when it is frequent, credible, and general.
FALSE

Difficulty: Easy
Learning Objective: 05-06 Describe the characteristics of effective goal setting and feedback.
Topic: 05-15 Characteristics of Effective Feedback

Feedback can be more frequent when employees perform short rather than long job cycles.
TRUE

Difficulty: Easy
Learning Objective: 05-06 Describe the characteristics of effective goal setting and feedback.
Topic: 05-15 Characteristics of Effective Feedback

Strengths-based coaching is also known as appreciative coaching.
TRUE

Difficulty: Easy
Learning Objective: 05-06 Describe the characteristics of effective goal setting and feedback.
Topic: 05-15 Characteristics of Effective Feedback

Strengths-based coaching is inconsistent with self-enhancement.
FALSE

Difficulty: Easy
Learning Objective: 05-06 Describe the characteristics of effective goal setting and feedback.
Topic: 05-15 Characteristics of Effective Feedback

The idea behind 360-degree feedback is that employees should receive feedback for 360 continuous days.
FALSE

Difficulty: Easy
Learning Objective: 05-06 Describe the characteristics of effective goal setting and feedback.
Topic: 05-16 Sources of Feedback

Research suggests that feedback originating only from the supervisor provides more complete and accurate information than feedback received through a 360-degree process.
FALSE

Difficulty: Easy
Learning Objective: 05-06 Describe the characteristics of effective goal setting and feedback.
Topic: 05-16 Sources of Feedback

Compared to supervisor-only feedback, 360-degree feedback tends to produce more ambiguous and conflicting feedback.
TRUE

Difficulty: Medium
Learning Objective: 05-06 Describe the characteristics of effective goal setting and feedback.
Topic: 05-16 Sources of Feedback

To learn about their progress towards goal accomplishment, employees usually prefer feedback from supervisors and other people.
FALSE

Difficulty: Medium
Learning Objective: 05-06 Describe the characteristics of effective goal setting and feedback.
Topic: 05-16 Sources of Feedback

Employees consider feedback from nonsocial sources to be more accurate than feedback from social sources.
TRUE

Difficulty: Easy
Learning Objective: 05-06 Describe the characteristics of effective goal setting and feedback.
Topic: 05-16 Sources of Feedback

When employees want to improve their self-image, they seek out positive feedback from social sources.
TRUE

Difficulty: Easy
Learning Objective: 05-06 Describe the characteristics of effective goal setting and feedback.
Topic: 05-16 Sources of Feedback

Combining goal setting with monetary incentives motivates many employees to set up difficult goals.
FALSE

Difficulty: Medium
Learning Objective: 05-06 Describe the characteristics of effective goal setting and feedback.
Topic: 05-17 Evaluating Goal Setting and Feedback

To determine the fairness of pay or other outcomes, people almost always rely on the equity principle.
FALSE

Difficulty: Easy
Learning Objective: 05-07 Summarize equity theory and describe ways to improve procedural justice.
Topic: 05-18 Organizational Justice

The distributive justice principle states that everyone should receive the same rewards in life.
FALSE

Difficulty: Easy
Learning Objective: 05-07 Summarize equity theory and describe ways to improve procedural justice.
Topic: 05-18 Organizational Justice

According to equity theory, employees feel inequity only when other people receive higher salaries than they do.
FALSE

Difficulty: Easy
Learning Objective: 05-07 Summarize equity theory and describe ways to improve procedural justice.
Topic: 05-19 Equity Theory

In the equity theory model, a ‘comparison other’ is an individual or group of people against whom the person compares his or her outcome/input ratio.
TRUE

Difficulty: Easy
Learning Objective: 05-07 Summarize equity theory and describe ways to improve procedural justice.
Topic: 05-19 Equity Theory

One of the most significant discoveries in equity theory research is that people tend to keep the same comparison other throughout their working lives.
FALSE

Difficulty: Medium
Learning Objective: 05-07 Summarize equity theory and describe ways to improve procedural justice.
Topic: 05-19 Equity Theory

Feelings of inequity occur when employees receive less than others, but not when they receive more than others.
FALSE

Difficulty: Medium
Learning Objective: 05-07 Summarize equity theory and describe ways to improve procedural justice.
Topic: 05-19 Equity Theory

Overreward inequity occurs whenever other people receive less money than you do.
FALSE

Difficulty: Medium
Learning Objective: 05-07 Summarize equity theory and describe ways to improve procedural justice.
Topic: 05-19 Equity Theory

Underreward inequity occurs when your outcome/input ratio is lower than the outcome/input ratio of a comparison other.
TRUE

Difficulty: Medium
Learning Objective: 05-07 Summarize equity theory and describe ways to improve procedural justice.
Topic: 05-19 Equity Theory

Equity theory research has found that employees who feel overrewarded tend to alter their perceptions of inputs and outcomes rather than attempt to actually change them.
TRUE

Difficulty: Medium
Learning Objective: 05-07 Summarize equity theory and describe ways to improve procedural justice.
Topic: 05-19 Equity Theory

One of the most common consequences of overreward inequity is that overpaid employees try to increase their inputs by working harder.
FALSE

Difficulty: Medium
Learning Objective: 05-07 Summarize equity theory and describe ways to improve procedural justice.
Topic: 05-19 Equity Theory

Equity sensitivity refers to how strongly people feel about outcome/input rations with others.
TRUE

Difficulty: Easy
Learning Objective: 05-07 Summarize equity theory and describe ways to improve procedural justice.
Topic: 05-19 Equity Theory

One problem with equity theory is that it incorrectly assumes people are individualistic, rational, and selfish.
FALSE

Difficulty: Medium
Learning Objective: 05-07 Summarize equity theory and describe ways to improve procedural justice.
Topic: 05-19 Equity Theory

Procedural justice is influenced by the policies and practices that decision makers follow as well as their standards of interpersonal conduct.
TRUE

Difficulty: Hard
Learning Objective: 05-07 Summarize equity theory and describe ways to improve procedural justice.
Topic: 05-20 Procedural Justice

Distributive justice increases directly with the extent that the decision allows voice, can be appealed, and has an unbiased decision maker.
FALSE

Difficulty: Hard
Learning Objective: 05-07 Summarize equity theory and describe ways to improve procedural justice.
Topic: 05-20 Procedural Justice

Giving employees an explanation for a negative decision has no effect on procedural justice.
FALSE

Difficulty: Medium
Learning Objective: 05-07 Summarize equity theory and describe ways to improve procedural justice.
Topic: 05-20 Procedural Justice

Feelings of procedural injustice produce anger, which, in turn, generates either withdrawal or aggression.
TRUE

Difficulty: Medium
Learning Objective: 05-07 Summarize equity theory and describe ways to improve procedural justice.
Topic: 05-20 Procedural Justice

Having a formalized way of appealing the decision of managers to a higher authority is a form of procedural justice.
TRUE

Difficulty: Medium
Learning Objective: 05-07 Summarize equity theory and describe ways to improve procedural justice.
Topic: 05-20 Procedural Justice

Multiple Choice Questions

The challenge facing organizational leaders today is that:
A.employers have difficulty understanding the different needs and expectations that younger generation employees bring to the workplace.
B. there are more layers of management today, which makes it more difficult to motivate everyone in management positions.
C. corporate downsizing and reduced job security have damaged the levels of trust employees need to work beyond minimum levels.
D. employees aren’t very engaged.
E. Employees display an unprecedented level of engagement and internal competition is fierce

Difficulty: Hard
Learning Objective: 05-01 Define employee engagement.
Topic: 05-01 Employee Engagement

Commonly mentioned influences on employee engagement include:
A.rate of pay.
B. appealing company mission statement.
C. organizational justice.
D. work/life balance.
E. flexible scheduling

Difficulty: Hard
Learning Objective: 05-01 Define employee engagement.
Topic: 05-01 Employee Engagement

All of the following are reasons given for why some employees are “disengaged” EXCEPT:
A.Companies have not strived for employee involvement.
B. Organizational injustices.
C. Communication about the business is lacking.
D. Employee development opportunities are lacking.
E. Basic needs of employees have not been provided or satisfied.

Difficulty: Hard
Learning Objective: 05-01 Define employee engagement.
Topic: 05-01 Employee Engagement

_________ produce emotions, whereas _________ represent the motivational force of those emotions which are channelled towards particular goals.
A.Drives, needs
B. Needs, drives
C. Intentions, wants
D. Decisions, drives
E. Intrinsic rewards, extrinsic rewards

Difficulty: Medium
Learning Objective: 05-02 Explain how human drives and emotions influence employee motivation.
Topic: 05-02 Employee Drives and Needs

Which of the following statements about drives is FALSE?
A.They are also called primary needs.
B. They activate emotions, which put us in a state of readiness to act.
C. They include only basic physiological essentials, such as hunger and thirst.
D. Drives and emotions represent the primary sources of motivation.
E. All of the choices are correct.

Difficulty: Hard
Learning Objective: 05-02 Explain how human drives and emotions influence employee motivation.
Topic: 05-02 Employee Drives and Needs

Self-concept, social norms, and past experience help:
A.adjust our level of drive-based emotions.
B. regulate our decisions and behaviours.
C. adjust our drive-based emotions, but not our behaviours.
D. make unemotional decisions based on reason and logic.
E. direct us into goal-directed behaviour.

Difficulty: Hard
Learning Objective: 05-02 Explain how human drives and emotions influence employee motivation.
Topic: 05-03 Individual Differences in Needs

Which of these is the most widely known theory of human motivation?
A.Maslow’s needs hierarchy theory
B. Expectancy theory
C. Goal setting theory
D. Equity theory
E. Learned needs theory

Maslow’s needs hierarchy explicitly names the following needs EXCEPT:
A.power.
B. self-actualization.
C. safety.
D. esteem.
E. belongingness.

The highest level need in Maslow’s hierarchy of needs is:
A.esteem.
B. safety.
C. power.
D. belongingness.
E. self-actualization.

In Maslow’s needs hierarchy, the bottom four levels are collectively known as ___________ needs, whereas self-actualization is called a(n) ______________ need.
A.belongingness, infinite
B. fictitious, factual
C. primary, secondary
D. subordinate, superordinate
E. None of the choices.

Maslow’s needs hierarchy theory discusses all of the following concepts EXCEPT:
A.physiological needs.
B. belongingness/love.
C. drive to acquire.
D. self-actualization.
E. safety needs.

Which of the following needs is NOT explicitly stated in Maslow’s needs hierarchy theory?
A.Physiological needs
B. Growth needs
C. Need for safety
D. Self-actualization
E. Psychological needs

Which of these theories states that we are motivated by several needs, but the strongest source is the lowest unsatisfied need?
A.Four-drive theory
B. Needs hierarchy theory
C. Equity theory
D. Distributive justice theory
E. Learned needs theory

According to Maslow’s needs hierarchy, after people have satisfied their physiological and safety needs, they are mainly motivated to fulfill their _______ needs.
A.belongingness
B. growth
C. self-esteem
D. social esteem
E. existence

One feature of Maslow’s needs hierarchy theory that continues to have support is that:
A.everyone has the same needs hierarchy.
B. no one ever experiences self-actualization.
C. motivation is caused by the environment, not by internal thoughts or emotions.
D. we should build positive qualities and perspectives within individuals and institutions as opposed to focusing on trying to fix what might be wrong with them.
E. everyone compares themselves to other people when determining what is fair.

Maslow’s view of employee motivation:
A.became the foundation of positive organizational behaviour.
B. helped employers standardize reward systems.
C. was that we should focus mostly on need deprivation.
D. encouraged others to narrowly define needs or drives.
E. introduced a mechanistic perspective of the workplace in organizational behaviour.

If individuals are unable to satisfy a particular need, Maslow’s needs hierarchy theory states that they:
A.keep trying to fulfill this need until it is satisfied.
B. redirect their efforts towards fulfilling a higher need in the hierarchy.
C. permanently remove the blocked need from their list of needs to satisfy.
D. become fixated on that particular need and are thus unable to progress.
E. None of the choices are correct.

Needs hierarchy theory fails to explain the dynamics of employee motivation mainly because:
A.some people never experience growth or self-actualization.
B. people do not have a needs hierarchy.
C. people do not fit into a single needs hierarchy.
D. people have drives, not needs.
E. both theories wrongly assume that everyone has hardwired needs.

Unlike needs hierarchy models, recent studies suggest that:
A.values, self-concept, and social identity influence a person’s unique needs hierarchy.
B. people do not have a needs hierarchy.
C. everyone has the same needs hierarchy.
D. physiological and safety needs are always the lowest level needs.
E. all needs are learned rather than formed from innate drives.

Current evidence indicates that a person’s needs hierarchy:
A.is hardwired.
B. is common to everyone.
C. remains the same over a person’s lifetime.
D. All of the answers are correct.
E. None of the answers apply.

Which of the following basic needs is explicitly stated in needs hierarchy theory and theory of learned needs?
A.Physiological needs
B. Safety needs
C. Power needs
D. Financial needs
E. None of the answers apply.

Through hard work, Gan lives comfortably without much financial debt. Now he wants to improve relations with colleagues and form stronger friendships. Which needs-based theory of motivation best explains Gan’s recent focus on his social needs?
A.Four-drive theory
B. Learned needs theory
C. Needs hierarchy theory
D. Expectancy theory
E. Equity theory

Which of these motivation theories arranges employee needs in a hierarchy of importance?
A.Maslow’s needs theory
B. Four-drive theory
C. Expectancy theory
D. McClelland’s learned needs theory
E. ERG theory and McClelland’s learned needs theory

When people are motivated for instrumental reasons to receive something that is beyond their personal control, it is considered:
A.intrinsic motivation
B. extrinsic motivation
C. internal motivation
D. instrumental motivation
E. valence motivation

Which of the following is considered an extrinsic motivator?
A.Experiencing progress in a task
B. The feeling of success that comes with the accomplishment of a goal
C. Personal Growth through learning
D. Frequent reminders from management to meet goals
E. All of these are considered intrinsic motivators

Jane holds a well-paying job with good job security. She also gets along well with colleagues, but has been frustrated in her attempts to find new friends. Due to this frustration, Jane has recently started spending more time trying to get challenging work from her employer. She now spends less time enjoying social relations with colleagues. Which needs-based theory of motivation would best explain Jane’s recent focus on seeking challenging work?
A.Four-drive theory
B. Learned needs theory
C. Needs hierarchy theory
D. ERG theory
E. None of these theories explains why people change their dominant needs

Which of the following employee motivation theories does NOT arrange needs in a hierarchy of importance?
A.Maslow’s theory.
B. Four-drive theory.
C. McClelland’s learned needs theory.
D. Equity theory.
E. Four-drive theory and McClelland’s learned needs theory only.

McClelland’s learned needs theory does NOT include which of these needs?
A.Safety need
B. Achievement need
C. Socialized power need
D. Personalized power need
E. Affiliation need

According to McClelland, achievement, affiliation, and power needs are:
A.instinctive.
B. genetic.
C. non-existent.
D. learned.
E. None of the answers apply.

The desire to seek approval from others, conform to their wishes and expectations, and avoid conflict and confrontation is called:
A.Need for affiliation
B. Need for power
C. Need for achievement
D. Need for safety
E. Need for existence

Compared to people with low need for affiliation, people with a high need for affiliation tend to:
A.have higher absenteeism.
B. be less effective in jobs requiring social interaction.
C. be better at mediating conflicts.
D. All of the answers are correct.
E. be less effective in jobs requiring social interaction and be better at mediating conflicts.

People with __________ are more effective in many jobs requiring social interaction, but they tend to be less effective at allocating scarce resources.
A.high nAch
B. low nPow
C. high nPow
D. low nAff
E. high nAff

Research has found that entrepreneurs are more likely to succeed if they have:
A.a low need for socialized power.
B. a high need for personalized power.
C. a high need for affiliation.
D. a low existence need.
E. a high need for achievement.

People with a high need for affiliation:
A.want to form positive relationships with others.
B. try to project a favourable image of themselves.
C. try to smooth out conflicts that occur in meetings and other social settings.
D. tend to work well in coordinating roles.
E. All of the answers are correct.

The two types of need for power in learned needs theory are:
A.personalized and socialized.
B. individual and team.
C. corporate and political.
D. high and low.
E. monetary and non-monetary.

Research has found that effective leaders possess:
A.a high need for socialized power.
B. a high need for personalized power.
C. a high need for affiliation.
D. a high existence need.
E. a high need for personalized power and a high need for affiliation.

Axel demands loyalty from employees and gains satisfaction from controlling people. His actions don’t seem to benefit the organization, rather, he does this to advance his own career and for the enjoyment of influencing others. Based on this information, it is most accurate to say that Axel has a:
A.high need for affiliation.
B. high need for socialized power.
C. high need for personalized power.
D. low need for achievement.
E. low need for personalized power.

Which of the following theories emphasizes the idea that some needs can be strengthened or weakened through training programs?
A.Maslow’s needs hierarchy theory
B. ERG theory
C. Learned needs theory
D. Four-drive theory
E. Equity theory.

According to the four-drive theory, which of the following is insatiable (i.e., can never be fulfilled, we always want more of it)?
A.Drive to acquire
B. Physiological needs
C. Drive to defend
D. Belongingness needs
E. Drive to acquire and drive to defend

In four-drive theory, the drive ______ is most closely associated with the need for relative status and recognition.
A.to bond
B. for fairness
C. to achieve goals
D. to acquire
E. for feedback

In four-drive theory, the drive ______ is most closely associated with social identity theory.
A.to bond
B. for fairness
C. to defend
D. to acquire
E. to achieve goals

Which theory explicitly includes the following concepts: acquire, bond, learn?
A.Goal setting theory
B. Four-drive theory
C. Maslow’s needs hierarchy
D. McClelland’s learned needs theory
E. Expectancy theory

According to four-drive theory, the drive ______ is a fundamental ingredient in the success of organizations and development of societies.
A.to defend
B. for fairness
C. to bond
D. to acquire
E. to achieve goals

Four-drive theory is based on the idea that:
A.needs can be learned.
B. needs form a permanent hierarchy.
C. employee motivation is based on expectations.
D. the sources of employee needs are hard-wired.
E. people do not really have any needs.

Which drive in four-drive theory is reactive rather than proactive?
A.Drive to acquire
B. Drive to learn
C. Drive to defend
D. Drive to bond
E. Drive for power

According to four-drive theory, ______ are the conscious sources of human motivation.
A.co-workers
B. food and drink
C. emotional markers
D. drives
E. justice and equity

Which theory most explicitly relies on emotions to explain employee motivation?
A.Four-drive theory
B. Maslow’s needs hierarchy
C. Goal setting theory
D. McClelland’s learned needs theory
E. Expectancy theory

The main practical implication of four-drive theory is that:
A.companies should ensure everyone fulfills their social needs before status needs.
B. companies should avoid offering rewards with a high valence.
C. people experience a sense of fairness in the process, not just the outcomes.
D. companies should provide a balanced opportunity for employees to acquire, bond, learn, and defend.
E. employees should receive 360-degree feedback rather than just from their supervisor.

Four-drive theory recommends:
A.that companies should encourage employees to fulfill one drive at a time.
B. that companies should provide sufficient rewards, learning opportunities, and social interaction at the same time.
C. that companies should only hire people with a strong drive to defend.
D. that companies should create a work environment that routinely triggers the employee’s drive to defend.
E. None of the answers apply.

Four-drive theory states that the four drives:
A.counterbalance each other.
B. are arranged in a hierarchy.
C. are learned, not innate.
D. are equivalent to the top four needs in Maslow’s needs hierarchy.
E. should not be fulfilled in organizational settings.

Expectancy theory mainly helps us to predict an individual’s:
A.effort.
B. need for achievement.
C. distributive justice.
D. job satisfaction.
E. rewards.

Difficulty: Easy
Learning Objective: 05-04 Discuss the expectancy theory model, including its practical implications.
Topic: 05-09 Expectancy Theory of Motivation

Which motivation theory is based on the idea that work effort is directed towards behaviours that people believe will lead to desired outcomes?
A.Equity theory
B. ERG theory
C. Goal setting theory
D. Four-drive theory
E. Expectancy theory

Difficulty: Medium
Learning Objective: 05-04 Discuss the expectancy theory model, including its practical implications.
Topic: 05-09 Expectancy Theory of Motivation

Expectancy theory mainly explains how employees:
A.have different needs at different times.
B. can use personal expectations to reduce work-related stress.
C. can motivate themselves through power.
D. have different levels of work effort based on their expectations of performance and reward outcomes.
E. compare their inputs and outcomes to other people.

Difficulty: Easy
Learning Objective: 05-04 Discuss the expectancy theory model, including its practical implications.
Topic: 05-09 Expectancy Theory of Motivation

Which of these is found in the expectancy theory model?
A.P-to-O expectancy
B. E-to-F expectancy
C. V-to-E expectancy
D. P-to-E expectancy
E. O-to-P expectancy

Difficulty: Easy
Learning Objective: 05-04 Discuss the expectancy theory model, including its practical implications.
Topic: 05-09 Expectancy Theory of Motivation

An individual’s perceived probability that a particular level of effort will result in a particular level of performance refers to the:
A.E-to-P need.
B. EP-to-PO outcome.
C. E-to-V expectancy.
D. E-to-P expectancy.
E. EV-to-PE outcome.

Difficulty: Easy
Learning Objective: 05-04 Discuss the expectancy theory model, including its practical implications.
Topic: 05-09 Expectancy Theory of Motivation

Which motivation theory considers the individual’s perceived probability that his or her effort will result in a particular level of performance?
A.Learned needs theory
B. Expectancy theory
C. Needs hierarchy theory
D. Equity theory
E. Four-drive theory

Difficulty: Easy
Learning Objective: 05-04 Discuss the expectancy theory model, including its practical implications.
Topic: 05-09 Expectancy Theory of Motivation

Which of the following statements about expectancy theory is FALSE?
A.Expectancy theory is a drive-based theory of motivation.
B. Expectancy theory has been applied to a wide variety of studies.
C. The process of employee motivation is explained reasonably well by expectancy theory.
D. One way to increase the P-to-O expectancy in the expectancy theory model is to accurately measure job performance.
E. Expectancy theory has three main components relating to effort, performance and performance outcomes.

Difficulty: Medium
Learning Objective: 05-04 Discuss the expectancy theory model, including its practical implications.
Topic: 05-09 Expectancy Theory of Motivation

Employees who believe that accomplishing a particular task will almost certainly result in a day off with pay would have:
A.an E-to-P expectancy above 100.
B. a P-to-O expectancy close to 1:0.
C. an outcome valence above 0:0.
D. an E-to-P expectancy close to minus 100.
E. a P-to-O expectancy close to 100.

Difficulty: Medium
Learning Objective: 05-04 Discuss the expectancy theory model, including its practical implications.
Topic: 05-09 Expectancy Theory of Motivation

According to expectancy theory, a reward that is not wanted has:
A.a high E-to-P expectancy.
B. an inappropriate comparison other.
C. a negative outcome valence.
D. a low P-to-O expectancy.
E. a low need for socialized power.

Difficulty: Medium
Learning Objective: 05-04 Discuss the expectancy theory model, including its practical implications.
Topic: 05-09 Expectancy Theory of Motivation

In expectancy theory, valence refers to the:
A.amount of effort a person puts towards a known goal.
B. individual’s perceived probability of performing the task at a particular level.
C. anticipated satisfaction or dissatisfaction that an individual feels towards an outcome.
D. individual’s perceived probability that his or her performance will lead to specific outcomes.
E. feelings that result from a comparison of the individual’s outcome/input ratio with the outcome/input ratio of a comparison other.

Difficulty: Medium
Learning Objective: 05-04 Discuss the expectancy theory model, including its practical implications.
Topic: 05-09 Expectancy Theory of Motivation

According to expectancy theory, providing counselling and coaching to an employee who lacks self-confidence is most likely to increase the employee’s:
A.V-to-O expectancy.
B. E-to-P expectancy.
C. P-to-E expectancy.
D. O-to-P expectancy.
E. P-to-O expectancy.

Difficulty: Easy
Learning Objective: 05-04 Discuss the expectancy theory model, including its practical implications.
Topic: 05-10 Expectancy Theory in Practice

Employee motivation tends to increase when people are assigned to jobs for which they are qualified and they receive coaching to improve their self-confidence. Both of these practices improve employee motivation by:
A.reducing feelings of inequity.
B. increasing outcome valences.
C. satisfying existence needs.
D. increasing P-to-O expectancies.
E. increasing E-to-P expectancies.

Difficulty: Medium
Learning Objective: 05-04 Discuss the expectancy theory model, including its practical implications.
Topic: 05-10 Expectancy Theory in Practice

According to expectancy theory, a skill-development training program would:
A.have no effect on employee motivation.
B. mainly increase the effort-to-performance expectancy.
C. mainly increase the performance-to-outcome expectancy.
D. mainly increase the valence of pay increases and other organizational outcomes.
E. mainly alter the comparison other.

Difficulty: Easy
Learning Objective: 05-04 Discuss the expectancy theory model, including its practical implications.
Topic: 05-10 Expectancy Theory in Practice

Which of the following actions would increase employee motivation mainly by enhancing their effort-to-performance expectancy?
A.Convince employees that poor performance will not be rewarded.
B. Reward employees with things that they value.
C. Measure performance more accurately.
D. Let employees know that their chances of performing successfully are good.
E. All of the answers are correct.

Difficulty: Hard
Learning Objective: 05-04 Discuss the expectancy theory model, including its practical implications.
Topic: 05-10 Expectancy Theory in Practice

One way to increase employee motivation by improving the P-to-O expectancies is to:
A.measure employee performance accurately.
B. convince employees that they are able to accomplish the task.
C. select employees with the required skills and knowledge.
D. provide sufficient time and resources to perform the task.
E. give everyone the same reward.

Difficulty: Easy
Learning Objective: 05-04 Discuss the expectancy theory model, including its practical implications.
Topic: 05-10 Expectancy Theory in Practice

ABC Corp. introduced a training program that ensured everyone had the required knowledge and skills to perform the work. The company also brought in a performance-based reward system that accurately identified employees who performed better than others. According to expectancy theory, these practices improve employee motivation by:
A.increasing employee needs.
B. reducing feelings of inequity.
C. improving E-to-P expectancies.
D. improving P-to-O expectancies.
E. improving E-to-P expectancies and improving P-to-O expectancies.

Difficulty: Medium
Learning Objective: 05-04 Discuss the expectancy theory model, including its practical implications.
Topic: 05-10 Expectancy Theory in Practice

According to expectancy theory, which of the following actions would NOT alter outcome valences?
A.Show employees how their skills can accomplish the task.
B. Give employees a choice of rewards.
C. Minimize the presence of countervalent outcomes.
D. Distribute rewards that employees want.
E. Adapt the type of rewards offered to each employee’s dominant needs.

Difficulty: Medium
Learning Objective: 05-04 Discuss the expectancy theory model, including its practical implications.
Topic: 05-10 Expectancy Theory in Practice

According to expectancy theory, linking valued rewards to higher job performance mainly increases motivation by:
A.strengthening the E-to-P expectancy.
B. increasing the valence of a $1,000 bonus.
C. weakening the E-to-P expectancy.
D. strengthening both the E-to-P and P-to-O expectancies.
E. strengthening the P-to-O expectancy.

Difficulty: Medium
Learning Objective: 05-04 Discuss the expectancy theory model, including its practical implications.
Topic: 05-10 Expectancy Theory in Practice

Which of these statements about expectancy theory is FALSE?
A.Expectancy theory details a person’s thinking process when translating demands from competing drives.
B. Expectancy theory doesn’t explain motivation in different cultures.
C. Expectancy theory explains why coaching and pay-for-performance motivate employees.
D. Expectancy theory emphasizes rational thinking more than emotions.
E. Expectancy theory offers one of the best models available for predicting work effort and motivation.

Difficulty: Medium
Learning Objective: 05-04 Discuss the expectancy theory model, including its practical implications.
Topic: 05-10 Expectancy Theory in Practice

Individualizing rewards enhances which expectancy theory component?
A.performance expectancy
B. E-to-O expectancy
C. Valences of outcomes
D. E-to-P expectancy
E. V-to-E outcomes

Difficulty: Easy
Learning Objective: 05-04 Discuss the expectancy theory model, including its practical implications.
Topic: 05-10 Expectancy Theory in Practice

Behaviour modification does NOT consider:
A.the types of actions that reinforce behaviour.
B. the effect of feedback on behaviour.
C. employee behaviour before the behaviour modification strategy is applied.
D. employee attitudes towards the person reinforcing the behaviour.
E. changes in employee behaviour when the reinforcer is removed.

According to the A-B-C model of behaviour modification, antecedents:
A.have no effect on behaviour.
B. cause people to act more randomly.
C. inform employees that certain behaviours will have particular consequences.
D. represent an older perspective of behaviour modification that is no longer relevant.
E. cause people to act more randomly and inform employees that certain behaviours will have particular consequences.

The A-B-C model of behaviour modification helps us to:
A.teach language skills to employees more effectively.
B. determine which contingency of reinforcement is best in a particular situation.
C. understand how experiential learning differs from social learning.
D. determine which schedule of reinforcement is best in a particular situation.
E. understand how environmental conditions influence learning and behaviour.

Which of these statements about behaviour modification is FALSE?
A.Behaviour modification programs are most effectively implemented where work behaviour is observable.
B. Behaviour modification considers the contingencies and schedules of reinforcement.
C. The reinforcer used in some behaviour modification programs tends to lose its effectiveness over time.
D. Behaviour modification theory argues that employee beliefs and attitudes cause behaviour.
E. A-B-C analysis considers what happens before and after the behaviour.

Which of the following is an example of punishment?
A.The organization takes away some of your pay cheque to cover the cost of a machine that you carelessly broke.
B. Your boss doesn’t say anything after you have the highest sales of the month.
C. Your boss stops complaining about your late arrival at work after you arrive early for several weeks.
D. After signing a contract with an important client, the company announces its appreciation of your work.
E. The organization takes away some of your pay cheque to cover the cost of a machine that you carelessly broke and your boss stops complaining about your late arrival at work after you arrive early for several weeks.

Which of the following increases the future probability of behaviour by removing a negative stimulus after the desired behaviour occurs?
A.Punishment
B. Negative reinforcement
C. Positive reinforcement
D. Extinction
E. Intrinsic motivators

Which of these occurs when the introduction of a consequence increases or maintains the frequency or future probability of a behaviour?
A.Positive reinforcement
B. Extinction
C. Job dissatisfaction
D. Punishment
E. Negative reinforcement

Which of these occurs when a consequence that is introduced decreases the frequency or future probability of a behaviour?
A.Negative reinforcement
B. Positive reinforcement
C. Punishment
D. Extinction
E. Equity outcomes

Co-workers no longer praise you when you engage in dangerous pranks, so you stop engaging in these pranks. This is an example of:
A.negative reinforcement.
B. punishment.
C. positive reinforcement.
D. action learning.
E. extinction.

In most situations, we should follow desired behaviour with _______ and follow undesirable behaviour with _________.
A.positive reinforcement, extinction
B. positive reinforcement, punishment
C. extinction, punishment
D. punishment, positive reinforcement
E. negative reinforcement, positive reinforcement

Receiving a commission only when a sale is made represents:
A.a variable ratio schedule.
B. negative reinforcement.
C. non fixed interval schedule.
D. self-serving bias.
E. a fixed ratio schedule.

Promotions typically follow which of these schedules?
A.Variable ratio
B. Fixed interval
C. Fixed ratio
D. Intermittent interval
E. None of the choices are correct.

In behaviour modification, extinction occurs when:
A.employees are forced to leave the organization.
B. a behaviour decreases in frequency because it is punished more than reinforced.
C. employees receive reinforcement less often now than in the past.
D. employees receive more reinforcement than they should receive.
E. a behaviour decreases in frequency because no consequence follows it.

A salesperson gets one sales order for every six clients called, on average. If a sales order is a form of positive reinforcement, what type of reinforcement schedule exists here?
A.Continuous
B. Fixed interval
C. Fixed ratio
D. Variable ratio
E. Variable interval

Which reinforcement schedule is best for helping employees to learn new behaviours?
A.Continuous
B. Fixed interval
C. Fixed ratio
D. Variable ratio
E. Variable interval

In behaviour modification, the variable ratio schedule:
A.rewards behaviour continuously rather than infrequently.
B. occurs when employees receive their biweekly pay cheque.
C. reinforces behaviour after it occurs a varying length of time.
D. reinforces behaviour after it occurs a varying number of times.
E. All of the answers are correct.

ABC Corp. pays its employees a fixed salary in a paycheque received every Friday afternoon. This is an example of which reinforcement schedule?
A.Continuous
B. Fixed interval
C. Fixed ratio
D. Variable ratio
E. None, pay cheques do not reinforce any behaviour

A British food company reduced absenteeism by giving employees with perfect attendance two chances (through a lottery) to win $500. This is an example of:
A.tacit knowledge.
B. behaviour modelling.
C. social learning.
D. a variable ratio schedule of reinforcement.
E. behaviour modification and a variable ratio schedule of reinforcement.

Which of these statements about behaviour modification is FALSE?
A.Behaviour modification’s behaviourist approach has lost favour among academics and practitioners.
B. Behaviour modification programs are sometimes viewed as a form of gambling.
C. Behaviour modification reinforcers tend to become too strong over time.
D. Behaviour modification focuses on behaviour rather than human thoughts.
E. Behaviour modification programs must run infrequently and only for short durations.

Social cognitive theory states that:
A.we learn the consequences of behaviour by observing the experiences of other people.
B. we learn through self-reinforcement.
C. we learn by modelling the behaviour of other people.
D. All of the answers are correct.
E. employees cannot learn in social settings.

Behavioural modelling and self-reinforcement are components of:
A.behaviour modification.
B. tacit knowledge.
C. social cognitive theory.
D. the MARS model of individual behaviour and performance.
E. organizational citizenship.

Which of the following is an advantage of behavioural modelling?
A.Behavioural modelling helps employees to acquire tacit knowledge and skills from others.
B. Behavioural modelling often transmits information more efficiently than through documentation.
C. People learn by imitating and practicing those behaviours.
D. All of the answers are correct.
E. Behavioural modelling has none of these advantages.

Self-reinforcement is a component of:
A.social cognitive theory.
B. behaviour modification.
C. Johari Window.
D. attribution theory.
E. Equity theory.

After completing a difficult assignment, you reward your accomplishment by playing a game on your computer. This reward is part of which of the following organizational behaviour concepts?
A.MARS model
B. Behaviour modification
C. Four-needs theory
D. Social cognitive theory
E. Organizational citizenship

After discovering the cause of a computer network problem, Jessie rewards herself by taking a coffee break. Jessie’s action of taking a break is an example of:
A.poor performance.
B. learning through experience.
C. self-reinforcement.
D. behaviour modelling.
E. learning through feedback.

Goal setting influences employee behaviour and performance mainly by improving:
A.situational contingencies and learned abilities.
B. aptitudes and learned abilities.
C. motivation and role perceptions.
D. role perceptions and learned abilities.
E. motivation and aptitudes.

Difficulty: Easy
Learning Objective: 05-06 Describe the characteristics of effective goal setting and feedback.
Topic: 05-13 Social Cognitive Theory

Goal setting is most effective when:
A.the supervisor sets the goals before discussing them with the employee.
B. the goals are achievable but challenging.
C. the goal statements are general rather than specific.
D. the outcome is an intrinsic reward, rather than an extrinsic reward.
E. the supervisor sets the goals before discussing them with the employee and the goals stretch the employee’s abilities and motivation.

Difficulty: Easy
Learning Objective: 05-06 Describe the characteristics of effective goal setting and feedback.
Topic: 05-14 Goal Setting and Feedback

The optimal level of goal:
A.occurs where the goal is challenging but not impossible.
B. is the most challenging goal that the company can possibly imagine.
C. occurs only when employees set their own goal.
D. is the point at which the employee does not yet think the goal will ‘stretch’ them at all.
E. occurs where the goal is challenging but not impossible and when employees set their own goal

Difficulty: Medium
Learning Objective: 05-06 Describe the characteristics of effective goal setting and feedback.
Topic: 05-14 Goal Setting and Feedback

To increase goal performance:
A.employees need to increase their lack of commitment to those goals.
B. supervisors need to reduce any control over setting the goals.
C. employees need goals that are specific and clear.
D. employees need to focus on what is good for the company instead of themselves.
E. employers need to set tight deadlines.

Difficulty: Easy
Learning Objective: 05-06 Describe the characteristics of effective goal setting and feedback.
Topic: 05-14 Goal Setting and Feedback

Feedback affects behaviour and job performance by improving which of the following?
A.Motivation
B. Role perceptions
C. Skills and knowledge
D. All of the answers are correct
E. None of the choices

Difficulty: Easy
Learning Objective: 05-06 Describe the characteristics of effective goal setting and feedback.
Topic: 05-15 Characteristics of Effective Feedback

Effective feedback is all of the following EXCEPT:
A.sufficiently frequent.
B. timely.
C. general.
D. credible.
E. relevant.

Difficulty: Easy
Learning Objective: 05-06 Describe the characteristics of effective goal setting and feedback.
Topic: 05-15 Characteristics of Effective Feedback

Effective feedback:
A.is general enough that it applies to any employee.
B. is provided only through social sources.
C. is provided no more frequently than once every three months.
D. All of the answers are correct.
E. None of the answers apply.

Difficulty: Easy
Learning Objective: 05-06 Describe the characteristics of effective goal setting and feedback.
Topic: 05-15 Characteristics of Effective Feedback

Which of the following statements about performance feedback is FALSE?
A.The optimal frequency of feedback depends on the type of job.
B. Feedback is more valuable when it comes from a credible source.
C. Feedback is more useful when it consists of general phrases, such as ‘Your sales are going well!’, rather than specific phrases.
D. Feedback should be available to employees as soon as possible.
E. Feedback is relevant when it is linked to goals.

Difficulty: Easy
Learning Objective: 05-06 Describe the characteristics of effective goal setting and feedback.
Topic: 05-15 Characteristics of Effective Feedback

How is effective feedback related to an employee’s task cycle (the time required to complete a typical task in the job)?
A.Feedback should be received an average of three times within each task cycle.
B. Employees with short task cycles usually need to receive feedback less often than employees with long task cycles.
C. Employees with short task cycles should receive feedback more frequently than employees with long task cycles.
D. Employees with short task cycles should never receive feedback.
E. Task cycles have no effect on effective feedback.

Difficulty: Medium
Learning Objective: 05-06 Describe the characteristics of effective goal setting and feedback.
Topic: 05-15 Characteristics of Effective Feedback

Strengths-based feedback is consistent with the process of:
A.self-reinforcement.
B. self-enhancement.
C. self-deprecation.
D. All of the answers are correct.
E. None of the answers apply.

Difficulty: Medium
Learning Objective: 05-06 Describe the characteristics of effective goal setting and feedback.
Topic: 05-15 Characteristics of Effective Feedback

Compared with supervisor-only feedback, 360-degree feedback tends to be:
A.less accurate.
B. less relevant to the employee’s actual performance.
C. less ambiguous.
D. All of the answers are correct.
E. None of the answers apply.

Difficulty: Medium
Learning Objective: 05-06 Describe the characteristics of effective goal setting and feedback.
Topic: 05-16 Sources of Feedback

Which of the following provides feedback from a full circle of people around the employee?
A.Hierarchical feedback
B. Executive coaching feedback
C. Behavioural feedback
D. 360-degree feedback
E. Nonsocial feedback

Difficulty: Easy
Learning Objective: 05-06 Describe the characteristics of effective goal setting and feedback.
Topic: 05-16 Sources of Feedback

If supervisors are able to observe only a small portion of an employee’s behaviour and performance, then they should:
A.evaluate several employees and average their performance results.
B. evaluate the employee’s performance based on their personal observations.
C. consider using 360-degree feedback for that employee.
D. infer job performance on unobserved tasks from the person’s performance on observed tasks.
E. None of the answers apply.

Difficulty: Medium
Learning Objective: 05-06 Describe the characteristics of effective goal setting and feedback.
Topic: 05-16 Sources of Feedback

360-degree feedback tends to:
A.be perceived as less accurate than feedback only from the supervisor.
B. be more effective when the results are used to determine pay increases and promotions, not just employee development.
C. be more complete and accurate information than feedback from a supervisor alone.
D. All of the answers are correct.
E. be perceived as less accurate than feedback only from the supervisor and be more ambiguous and conflicting than when feedback comes only from the supervisor.

Difficulty: Medium
Learning Objective: 05-06 Describe the characteristics of effective goal setting and feedback.
Topic: 05-16 Sources of Feedback

Feedback from social sources is generally better than from nonsocial sources when:
A.the feedback is negative.
B. employees want accurate information about their job performance.
C. employees perform poorly and are easily offended by negative feedback.
D. All of the answers are correct.
E. None of the answers apply.

Difficulty: Medium
Learning Objective: 05-06 Describe the characteristics of effective goal setting and feedback.
Topic: 05-16 Sources of Feedback

Which of the following typically provides feedback from more than one source?
A.Supervisor’s quarterly performance review.
B. 360-degree feedback report.
C. Executive coaching session
D. Electronic display showing number of people waiting for call centre staff to answer their call.
E. None of the answers apply.

Difficulty: Medium
Learning Objective: 05-06 Describe the characteristics of effective goal setting and feedback.
Topic: 05-16 Sources of Feedback

To correct performance problems, employees would most likely prefer to receive feedback from:
A.the employee’s supervisor once or twice each year.
B. co-workers.
C. customers.
D. a frequent computer printout or other document.
E. the employee’s supervisor once or twice each year and co-workers.

Difficulty: Easy
Learning Objective: 05-06 Describe the characteristics of effective goal setting and feedback.
Topic: 05-16 Sources of Feedback

Goal setting is rated by experts as:
A.one of the top OB theories in terms of validity and usefulness.
B. a theory that motivates executives but has little or no effect on the motivation of non-management staff.
C. a theory which has the opposite effect on employee motivation than was originally intended.
D. None of the answers apply.
E. one of the top OB theories in terms of validity and usefulness, but has the opposite effect on employee motivation than was originally intended.

Difficulty: Medium
Learning Objective: 05-06 Describe the characteristics of effective goal setting and feedback.
Topic: 05-17 Evaluating Goal Setting and Feedback

Organizational justice has two distinct facets called ______ and _______ justice.
A.fair, illegal
B. distributive, procedural
C. active, passive
D. structural, social
E. innate, learned

Difficulty: Easy
Learning Objective: 05-07 Summarize equity theory and describe ways to improve procedural justice.
Topic: 05-18 Organizational Justice

The distributive justice rule applies the concept of:
A.motivation.
B. individual needs.
C. equity.
D. goal setting.
E. None of the answers apply.

Difficulty: Easy
Learning Objective: 05-07 Summarize equity theory and describe ways to improve procedural justice.
Topic: 05-18 Organizational Justice

Which of the following theories suggests that employee motivation is influenced by what other people contribute to and receive from the organization?
A.Expectancy theory
B. Equity theory
C. Needs-based theory
D. Need theory
E. Goal setting

Difficulty: Easy
Learning Objective: 05-07 Summarize equity theory and describe ways to improve procedural justice.
Topic: 05-19 Equity Theory

Inputs, outcomes, and comparison other are elements of:
A.four-drive theory.
B. Maslow’s needs hierarchy.
C. equity theory.
D. expectancy theory.
E. goal setting theory.

Difficulty: Easy
Learning Objective: 05-07 Summarize equity theory and describe ways to improve procedural justice.
Topic: 05-19 Equity Theory

To determine the fairness of pay or other outcomes, people usually apply:
A.the equity principle.
B. the equality principle.
C. the need principle.
D. a combination of the above principles in different situations.
E. a combination of the equity principle and the need principle but never the equality principle.

Difficulty: Medium
Learning Objective: 05-07 Summarize equity theory and describe ways to improve procedural justice.
Topic: 05-19 Equity Theory

Which of the following concepts is explicitly considered by equity theory?
A.Comparison other
B. Effort-to-performance expectancy
C. Outcome/input ratio
D. All of the answers are correct.
E. Comparison other and outcome/input ratio

Difficulty: Medium
Learning Objective: 05-07 Summarize equity theory and describe ways to improve procedural justice.
Topic: 05-19 Equity Theory

According to equity theory:
A.everyone has the same needs over their working life.
B. money should never be used to motivate employees.
C. employees must set their own goals.
D. the importance of inputs and outcomes varies from one person to the next.
E. improving job security and working conditions will improve job satisfaction and, consequently, employee motivation.

Difficulty: Medium
Learning Objective: 05-07 Summarize equity theory and describe ways to improve procedural justice.
Topic: 05-19 Equity Theory

According to equity theory:
A.we compare ourselves with a comparison other only when we are certain that inequity exists.
B. our comparison other never exists in real life.
C. our comparison other is always someone in another organization.
D. we choose people as comparison others only when we know that they receive fewer outcomes than we do.
E. none of these statements are true.

Difficulty: Medium
Learning Objective: 05-07 Summarize equity theory and describe ways to improve procedural justice.
Topic: 05-19 Equity Theory

Susan and Courtney have been in the same job for about the same length of time and perform very similar tasks. Susan’s bonus for her performance over the past year was higher than Courtney’s bonus. Susan believes that Courtney’s job performance was lower than her job performance. Based on this information:
A.Susan would definitely have feelings of underreward inequity.
B. Susan would definitely have feelings of overreward inequity.
C. Susan would definitely feel that she is rewarded equitably.
D. Susan would never have Courtney as a comparison other.
E. we cannot determine Susan’s feelings of equity or inequity.

Difficulty: Hard
Learning Objective: 05-07 Summarize equity theory and describe ways to improve procedural justice.
Topic: 05-19 Equity Theory

According to equity theory, feelings of inequity can be reduced by all of the following EXCEPT:
A.disassociating inputs from outcomes.
B. changing the comparison other.
C. leaving the field.
D. cognitively distorting inputs and outcomes.
E. actually altering inputs or outcomes.

Difficulty: Medium
Learning Objective: 05-07 Summarize equity theory and describe ways to improve procedural justice.
Topic: 05-19 Equity Theory

Employees who receive a fixed amount of pay each week and who feel underrewarded are likely to:
A.reduce their work effort.
B. increase their work effort.
C. change their perceptions, thinking that they work harder than they really do.
D. encourage the comparison other to reduce his or her work effort.
E. None of the answers apply.

Difficulty: Easy
Learning Objective: 05-07 Summarize equity theory and describe ways to improve procedural justice.
Topic: 05-19 Equity Theory

According to equity theory, employees change their comparison other
A.only when they are new to their jobs.
B. every three or four months.
C. only when they feel overpaid.
D. as a way to alter their inputs.
E. as a means of reducing feelings of inequity.

Difficulty: Easy
Learning Objective: 05-07 Summarize equity theory and describe ways to improve procedural justice.
Topic: 05-19 Equity Theory

People who are ‘equity sensitive’ tend to:
A.avoid having a comparison other.
B. be tolerant of situations where they are underrewarded.
C. have a low E-to-P expectancy.
D. feel more comfortable in situations where they receive proportionately more than others.
E. want their outcome/input ratio to be equal to the outcome/input ratio of the comparison other.

Difficulty: Hard
Learning Objective: 05-07 Summarize equity theory and describe ways to improve procedural justice.
Topic: 05-19 Equity Theory

It is often difficult to maintain feelings of equity among employees because:
A.most employees feel inequitably treated no matter how much they receive for their work effort.
B. the equity theory model does not apply to non-management employees.
C. most employees don’t know about feelings of equity.
D. each employee has different opinions regarding which inputs should be rewarded and which outcomes are more valuable than others.
E. All of the answers are correct.

Difficulty: Hard
Learning Objective: 05-07 Summarize equity theory and describe ways to improve procedural justice.
Topic: 05-19 Equity Theory

Voice and the right to appeal are two important practices that influence:
A.the size of outcome valences.
B. a person’s innate drives.
C. a person’s location in Maslow’s needs hierarchy.
D. perceptions of procedural justice.
E. whether companies should use 360-degree feedback or just supervisor feedback.

Difficulty: Medium
Learning Objective: 05-07 Summarize equity theory and describe ways to improve procedural justice.
Topic: 05-20 Procedural Justice

With respect to procedural justice, the “value-expressive” function which “voice” provides refers to:
A.the feeling employees get when they feel valued at work.
B. the way employees feel after voicing their opinions.
C. the cathartic benefits of shouting at each other.
D. the sense of pride employees derive when they are eloquent during presentations.
E. None of the answers are correct.

Difficulty: Hard
Learning Objective: 05-07 Summarize equity theory and describe ways to improve procedural justice.
Topic: 05-20 Procedural Justice

When people experience procedural injustice, they are more likely to:
A.engage in more organizational citizenship behaviours.
B. engage in counterproductive work behaviours.
C. more likely to comply with higher authorities in the future.
D. All of the answers are correct.
E. engage in more organizational citizenship behaviours and are more likely to comply with higher authorities in the future.

Difficulty: Easy
Learning Objective: 05-07 Summarize equity theory and describe ways to improve procedural justice.
Topic: 05-20 Procedural Justice

Short Answer Questions

Maslow’s needs hierarchy theory was dismissed by experts more than three decades ago, yet Maslow’s writing has had a lasting and valuable effect by advocating a more holistic and humanistic approach to human motivation. Discuss these two elements and point out how they were applied in Maslow’s needs hierarchy theory.

Students should describe each of these three philosophies of motivation thinking and identify how they exist in Maslow’s own needs hierarchy theory. Here are the key points:

Holistic. This is the view that needs and drives should be studied together, not piecemeal, because their effects are influenced by other needs and drives, not independently. Maslow’s needs hierarchy theory takes a holistic approach by condensing the long list of needs into a hierarchy of five basic categories, and describes the effect of these needs on motivation in terms of each need’s relationship to other needs (the lowest level need is strongest, people move to a higher need when the lower one is fulfilled, etc.).
Humanistic. The humanistic approach refers to the notion that motivation is influenced at least partly by human thought and social influences rather than just instinct. This contrasts with early motivation research which mainly investigated instinctive forms of motivation. This humanistic approach is apparent in needs hierarchy theory because it introduced growth needs rather than just deficiency needs. Growth needs (self-actualization) involves thinking rather than instinctive wants. Social status also likely has a social rather than purely instinctive influence.

Contrast intrinsic and extrinsic motivation.

Intrinsic motivation refers to motivation controlled by the individual and experienced from the activity itself. It occurs when people seek need fulfilment from doing the activity itself not as a means to some other outcome. They enjoy applying their talents toward a meaningful task and experiencing progress or success in that task.
Intrinsic motivation contrasts with extrinsic motivation, which occurs when people are motivated for instrumental reasons to receive something that is beyond their personal control. In other words, they direct their effort toward a reward controlled by others that indirectly fulfils a need. Extrinsic sources of motivation exist throughout organizations, and include performance bonuses, recognition awards, and frequent reminders from the boss about work deadlines. These are extrinsic motivators because the outcomes (bonus, award, happy boss) are controlled by others and are not need fulfilments in themselves. The recognition award is a means to satisfy status needs, for example.

Your organization wants to hire and develop a group of people for executive positions in a fast-growing high-technology firm. The company’s selection tests are able to identify each applicant’s current level of need for achievement, power (both types) and affiliation. Moreover, the company has special training programs to further develop these fast-track executives on these learned needs. Identify which learned needs the company should use to select these applicants and should further develop in the training programs.

Need for socialized power. Effective executives have a high need for socialized power because this motivates them to acquire power to benefit the organization. Therefore, applicants should be selected if they have high levels of this need, and they should receive further training to develop this socialized power need.
Need for personalized power. Effective executives have low levels of personalized power because this motivates them to acquire power for personal gain. Thus, applicants with high levels of this need should be screened out. Moreover, these people should not receive any training to develop this need.
Need for affiliation. Effective executives have a relatively low need for affiliation so that their choices and actions are not biased by a personal need for approval. Thus, applicants with high levels of this need should be screened out. Moreover, these people should not receive any training to develop this need.
Need for achievement. Effective executives have a moderate (neither too high nor too low) need for achievement. If too high, executives have difficulty delegating work and involving employees. If too low, executives are not motivated enough to work towards challenging goals. Thus, applicants should be selected if they have moderate levels of this need. Training probably should not be provided, unless some of these people currently have low need for achievement.

Contrast drives and needs.

Drives are defined in this text as hardwired characteristics of the brain that attempt to keep us in balance by correcting deficiencies. Drives produce emotions that energize us to act on our environment. Drives are universal and innate, which means that everyone has them and they exist from birth. Drives are the starting point of motivation because they generate emotions, which put people in a state of readiness to act on their environment.
Drives and emotions translate into needs (see exhibit 5.1). Needs are defined as goal-directed forces that people experience. They are the motivational forces of emotions channelled toward specific goals to correct deficiencies or imbalances.

Difficulty: Easy
Learning Objective: 05-02 Explain how human drives and emotions influence employee motivation.
Topic: 05-02 Employee Drives and Needs

Briefly describe the various drives within the Four-drive Theory and explain how drives influence employee motivation.

Drive to acquire: This is the drive to seek, take, control, and retain objects and personal experiences.
Drive to bond: This is the drive to form social relationships and develop mutual caring commitments with others.
Drive to learn: This is the drive to satisfy our curiosity, to know and understand ourselves and the environment around us.
Drive to defend: This drive creates a fight-or-flight response in the face of personal danger.
Every bit of information we receive is quickly and non-consciously tagged with emotional markers that subsequently shape our logical analysis of the situation. According to Four-drive Theory, these four drives determine which emotions are tagged to incoming stimuli. Four-drive Theory states that competing drives (i.e. conflicting emotions) demand our attention, which causes us to choose a course of action based on our social norms, past experience, and personal values. In other words, our conscious analysis of competing demands from the four drives generates needs that energize us to act in ways acceptable to society and our own moral compass.

A large manufacturer of Internet hardware wants to hire an executive who will help develop the firm’s marketing division. This executive must be a ‘team player’ by working with other executives. The successful candidate will also delegate more responsibility to the marketing professionals, but is responsible for making tough decisions regarding allocation of limited budgets. Describe the level of need for achievement, affiliation, and socialized and personalized power that the ideal candidate would have for this position. Your answer should also briefly define these terms.

To answer this question, students need to briefly define each term, then identify the level of each need.

Need for achievement (nAch). This is a learned need that causes people to want to accomplish reasonably challenging goals through their own efforts. The textbook indicates that people with a high nAch prefer working alone rather than in teams. The position in this question calls for someone who is a team player, so the person should have somewhat lower nAch because they must delegate work and build support through involvement. This does not mean that nAch should be low. Rather, it should not be extremely high (as found in entrepreneurs). Some students might note that high nAch people may perform well in large companies where they are given considerable independence—as though they are running their own business. However, this clearly indicates that the marketing executive is working with the executive team.
Need for affiliation (nAff). This is a learned need that causes people to seek approval from others, conform to their wishes and expectations, and avoid conflict and confrontation. The textbook indicates that decision makers (including executives) should have a relatively low level of nAff because people with high nAff are less effective at allocating scarce resources and making other decisions that potentially generate conflict. The ideal candidate for this position should have a relatively low nAff so that his or her choices and actions are not biased by a personal need for approval.
Need for power (nPow). This is a learned need that causes people to want to exercise control over others and are concerned about maintaining their leadership position. Those with a high personalized need for power enjoy their power for its own sake and use it to advance their career and other personal interests. Those with a high socialized need for power want power as a means to help others, such as improving society or increasing organizational effectiveness. The ideal executive should have a low personalized need for power and a high socialized need for power so that power is directed towards fulfillment of organizational objectives.

Four-drive theory offers a contemporary view of how individual drives influence behaviour. The first part of the theory explains how drives generate emotions. Explain how these emotions are translated into employee behaviour. Your answer should identify the three factors that people consider in this translation process.

This question asks students to describe the second half of the four-drive theory process. To answer this question, students need to state that when emotions are raised to a level of consciousness (which often occurs when emotions compete with each other). When aware of this internal conflict, people rely on a built-in skill set to resolve these dilemmas. These skills take into account social norms, past experience, and personal values. The result is goal-directed decision and effort that fits within the constraints of cultural and moral expectations. In other words, the conscious analysis of competing demands from the four drives generates needs that energize people to act in ways acceptable to society and our own moral compass.

Four-drive theory is one of the few theories of motivation that recognizes the central role of human emotions in the motivation process. Explain how four-drive theory applies emotions to employee motivation.

Four-drive theory recognizes that we perceive information from the external environment both rationally and emotionally. The emotional centre, which operates faster than the rational centre, relies on the innate drive to code the relevance and strength of the perceived information. Situations that violate or support these drives receive emotional markers (fear, excitement, anger, etc.). The emotionally coded information is transmitted to the rational centre of the brain where it is evaluated in the context of memory and competencies. The rational centre then makes a conscious choice that motivates behaviour.
The four drives speed up the decision-making process because the emotional markers created by these drives highlight the alternative actions to avoid and the alternatives to favour. Emotional markers also become the conscious sources of human motivation.

Overall, expectancy theory is a useful model that explains how people rationally figure out the best direction, intensity, and persistence of effort. Discuss some limitations of this theory.

One limitation with expectancy theory, however, is that it mainly explains extrinsic motivation, the model’s features do not fit easily with intrinsic motivation.
Another concern is that the theory ignores emotions as a source of motivation. The valence element of expectancy theory captures some of this emotional process, but only peripherally.
A third issue is that expectancy theory outlines how expectancies (probability of outcomes) affect motivation, but it doesn’t explain how employees develop these expectancies.

Your organization wants to improve employee motivation. Employees already have strong P-to-O expectancies and the outcome valences are quite favourable for strong performance, but they seem to have a low E-to-P expectancy. Identify three distinct types of strategies that would potentially increase employee motivation by improving the E-to-P expectancy.

The E-to-P expectancy may be improved generally by increasing the individual’s abilities and self-perceptions of ability, and by providing favourable situational contingencies. There are three basic strategies for improving the individual’s ability to perform the job. First, the organization should select people with the required skills and knowledge to perform the job. Second, the organization should provide sufficient training to enable the person to do the job proficiently. Third, for those who lack the skills or knowledge to perform the whole job, managers might temporarily reduce the job requirements. Specifically, aspects of the job that are beyond the individual’s qualifications may be temporarily assigned to other people.
To improve the person’s perceived ability to perform the job, managers could show employees how their skills can accomplish the task. They could provide evidence and examples that similar employees have been successful in this job. Managers should provide encouragement and support to employees who lack self-confidence. They should provide feedback to reinforce the belief that the employees can perform the job.
Finally, the E-to-P expectancy tends to increase as employees are placed in work environments with favourable situational contingencies. In other words, they should be given sufficient time, materials and other resources to accomplish the job and have obstacles removed where possible.

Difficulty: Medium
Learning Objective: 05-04 Discuss the expectancy theory model, including its practical implications.
Topic: 05-10 Expectancy Theory in Practice

You want production employees at your company to be more motivated to complete their assignments more efficiently. They are confident that they can perform their jobs more efficiently and the rewards you give employees (pay cheques, paid time off, etc.) are valued by these people. Identify the one element of expectancy theory that requires improvement and identify three possible actions that would increase employee motivation through this element.

Students need to answer this question by first identifying the element of expectancy theory that requires change. The incident says that employees know they can perform their jobs more efficiently, so they already have a high E-to-P expectancy. Moreover, employees value the rewards, suggesting that the outcomes have a high valence. This leaves the likelihood that employees have a low P-to-O expectancy. That is, they perceive a low probability that performing the job more efficiently will lead to desired outcomes.
There are several ways to increase the P-to-O expectancy. The company needs to measure employee performance accurately (in this case, measuring number of units produced per hour or some other measure of work efficiency). The company needs to tell employees that certain desirable rewards will result from increased work efficiency. P-to-O expectancy will also increase if the company shows examples of situations where employees receive the desired rewards after they have performed their jobs more efficiently. Moreover, when employees receive their rewards, they should be told how these rewards resulted from past incidents of work efficiency.

Difficulty: Medium
Learning Objective: 05-04 Discuss the expectancy theory model, including its practical implications.
Topic: 05-10 Expectancy Theory in Practice

What are the A-B-Cs of behaviour modification?

The A-B-Cs of behaviour modification represent the three main elements that the theory examines—namely antecedents, behaviour and consequences.
Antecedents are environmental cues preceding the behaviour informing employees that particular activities will have particular consequences. Behaviour modification recognizes that employee behaviour may be altered by systematically introducing and removing these cues.
Behaviour refers to anything that someone says or does. Increasing the frequency or consistency of certain behaviours and reducing or eliminating undesirable behaviours are the central objectives of behaviour modification programs.
Consequences are events following behaviour that influence its future occurrence. There are four types of reinforcers—called the contingencies of reinforcement—and five schedules used to administer these reinforcers. Behaviour modification recognizes that employee behaviour may be altered by systematically altering these consequences.

Big Box Construction Company has received warnings from government safety inspectors that employees at some of its construction sites are not wearing the required safety helmets and noise-protection equipment. The company could lose these contracts if safety practices are not maintained. The company has warned employees that they could be fired if they don’t wear the safety gear, but this has had little effect. Describe an A-B-C analysis for this situation and provide two types of behaviour modification interventions that might change employee behaviour in this situation.

An A-B-C analysis involves diagnosing the antecedents and consequences of wearing safety equipment. In this situation, the company needs to look at the conditions under which employees are required to wear the equipment, as well as what happens when they wear (and don’t wear) the equipment.
Antecedents are environmental cues informing employees that certain behaviours have particular consequences. The diagnosis would look at whether there are clear indicators that employees need to wear the safety equipment to avoid accidents and prevent job loss due to safety infractions. Thus, one type of intervention might be to have the company post signs reminding employees of the importance of wearing safety equipment.
Consequences are events following a particular behaviour that influence its future occurrence. The diagnosis in this situation would look at whether employees receive positive reinforcement from wearing the equipment or whether the net consequences are unfavourable. Thus, one type of intervention might be to show employees examples in which wearing safety gear saved someone’s life. Alternatively, the company might have a safety award in which people receive a specific form of positive reinforcement for wearing safety gear each day on the job. A third strategy is to search out and remove sources of punishment employees receive for wearing the safety gear. For example, they might receive ridicule from colleagues or they may find the safety gear uncomfortable. By removing or minimizing these punishers, employees are more likely to wear safety gear.

Behaviour modification has been very effective in some settings, but also has several limitations. Describe two limitations of behaviour modification and give an example of each.

Students can describe any two of the three limitations identified in the textbook. They are summarized here along with a typical example. Students can, of course, provide other examples.

Reward inflation. Behaviour modification programs often suffer from “reward inflation,” in which the reinforcer is either quickly forgotten or eventually considered an entitlement. For example, if a company offers time off with pay for good attendance, employees may eventually feel like the extra time off is a normal part of employment and feel punished if they don’t receive it.
Variable ratio schedule is a form of gambling. The variable ratio schedule may be best for maintaining behaviour, but it also resembles a lottery. Some people worry about the ethical nature of this schedule because employees are essentially betting that they will receive a reinforcer after the next behaviour. For example, rather than receiving a bonus for every 100 units sold, the employee would only have a probability of receiving this reward. Some employees may be repulsed by these behaviour modification practices.
Behaviourist philosophy. Behaviour modification’s radical “behaviourist” philosophy (that human thinking processes are unimportant) has lost favour because it is now evident that people can learn through mental processes, such as observing others and thinking logically about possible consequences. Thus, behaviour modification is no longer considered sufficient to understand learning in organizations.

Explain why behaviour modelling is often more effective than direct reinforcement for helping employees to learn new behaviours.

Behaviour modelling is often more effective than direct reinforcement for helping employees to learn new behaviours because observation communicates information clearly and fully whereas direct reinforcement is a trial-and-error approach that may lead to misinterpretation (e.g. when the reinforcer isn’t closely linked to the desired behaviour). Behavioural modelling transfers tacit knowledge that is otherwise difficult to communicate.
Behavioural modelling is also more effective because it enhances the observer’s self-confidence (i.e. self-confidence in performing the task). Direct reinforcement might have this effect after the behaviour has been performed correctly, but not beforehand. It is much easier to develop self-confidence by watching others similar to you perform the task well.

Friendly Cafe is a chain of coffee shops located throughout Canada. The company president wants your management-consulting firm to use behavioural modelling to improve customer service skills among servers. Give two explanations why behavioural modelling may be an effective learning strategy in this situation and identify two important characteristics of this approach.

According to social cognitive theory, employees learn tacit skills and knowledge much better through behavioural modelling than through traditional classroom learning. By observing a professional server, Friendly Cafe’s servers can more easily see and understand the subtle cues and behaviours that provide superior customer service. A second benefit of behavioural modelling is that it enhances the observer’s self-confidence. By seeing someone else engage in the desired behaviour, observers develop a higher degree of self-confidence that they can also perform those behaviours.
Two important characteristics of the behavioural model are that the model is respected by observers and the model’s actions are followed by favourable consequences. For example, the model should be a respected colleague or look similar to colleagues and the model should receive praise or some other form of positive reinforcement following the desirable behaviour.

Total Chemical Corp. (TCC) developed a goal-setting program aimed at teams that operate the petrochemical process in TCC’s plants. The goal-setting program encouraged team leaders to frequently remind team members to ‘do their best’. TCC’s executives also rewarded team leaders who pushed employees to complete impossible deadlines. One year after the goal-setting program was introduced, TCC’s executives couldn’t see much improvement in job performance. Explain why goal setting might not have worked effectively here.

This incident indicates two obvious problems with the goal-setting program. First, goal setting works best when employees are given specific goals, such as ‘increase flow-through by 4 per cent over the next three months’. In this case, employees were just reminded to do their best. Second, by regularly assigning impossible deadlines, the team leaders may be undermining goal commitment. This also weakens the motivational effect of goal setting.

Difficulty: Easy
Learning Objective: 05-06 Describe the characteristics of effective goal setting and feedback.
Topic: 05-14 Goal Setting and Feedback

Comment on the accuracy of the following statement: ‘According to goal-setting theory, performance increases with the level of goal difficulty.’

This statement is generally correct, but only up to a certain point. It is true that performance increases with the level of goal difficulty. Harder goals lead to greater effort and persistence than easier goals. However, employees must accept and preferably be committed to these challenging goals. Without goal acceptance, effort declines significantly, resulting in low performance. (This is similar to expectancy theory where the E-to-P expectancy declines.)

Difficulty: Easy
Learning Objective: 05-06 Describe the characteristics of effective goal setting and feedback.
Topic: 05-14 Goal Setting and Feedback

Suppose that you supervise two-dozen sales representatives, covering every region of the country, from your office at company headquarters. Describe a feedback strategy that might improve the performance of these employees with respect to increasing sales to new clients.

To answer this question, we must consider the five characteristics of effective feedback described in the textbook. In other words, the sales manager must construct a feedback mechanism that takes into account the degree to which the feedback is specific, frequent, timely, credible and relevant.

Specific feedback. Feedback is more useful when it includes specific information rather than subjective and general phrases. Thus, the sales manager should provide feedback that describes specific information (e.g. sales volume) for a specific area and time frame.
Sufficiently frequent feedback. Most organizations should provide more frequent feedback to employees. The best strategy is to have feedback continuously available and to let employees decide when they want to see it. Thus, the sales manager should make sales information available whenever sales employees want this feedback.
Timely feedback. Feedback should be available as soon as possible so that employees see a clear association between their behaviour and its consequences. Thus, the sales manager should arrange to have sales information prepared as quickly as possible.
Credible feedback. Feedback has value only when the employee accepts its content. Employees are more likely to accept feedback from trustworthy and credible sources. Thus, feedback should come from reputable sources, such as valid computer printouts and from executives who are respected by sales employees.
Relevant feedback. Feedback is most effective when it relates to the individual’s behaviour rather than broader departmental or organizational activities. Thus, the sales manager should ensure that each employee’s feedback relates to sales goals for that person and that the information relates to events under the employee’s control.

Difficulty: Medium
Learning Objective: 05-06 Describe the characteristics of effective goal setting and feedback.
Topic: 05-15 Characteristics of Effective Feedback

A large project engineering company assigns engineering, purchasing, marketing and support staff to client-based projects, which last anywhere from four months to one year. These project staff report to both the project leader and the manager of their functional specialization. For example, a marketing employee in Project Z would receive day-to-day instructions from the Project Z manager, but would receive career development guidance from the company’s director of marketing. The functional manager also places employees in future projects. In the past, project staff were evaluated by the employee’s project leader at the time of the annual performance evaluation. However, some employees complained that they had just started the project, so the project leader didn’t know their performance. The company wants to introduce a 360-degree feedback process to overcome this and other problems with the performance evaluation system. Describe the specific characteristics of a 360-degree feedback process for project staff at this company and identify two problems that the company should know about 360-degree feedback systems.

To answer this question, students need to describe the 360-degree process in this context and they need to identify two problems with 360-degree feedback.
The 360-degree process for project staff can take a few forms, but the following description is probably the most common one. Once or possibly twice each year, the company would collect feedback about specific employees from a representative group of people around that employee. In this setting, the current and former project leaders over the past year would contribute feedback, as would a sample of employees in the current and past projects over the past year. These projects are client-based, so the company might ask clients for feedback, where appropriate. It isn’t clear whether these staffers have subordinates, but, if so, lower-level employees would also submit feedback about the employee.
One issue in this process is who would collect and process this multisource feedback and discuss the results with the employee. While there is no absolutely correct answer here, probably the best choice would be the employee’s functional manager (e.g. the director of marketing for marketing employees). Functional heads are logical choices because they are responsible for the employee’s career development and oversee the employee’s project placement. Thus, the various sources of feedback would submit their comments and ratings to the employee’s functional manager. The functional manager would organize this information and discuss it with the employee.
The textbook identifies the following four potential problems with 360-degree feedback. Students need to identify any two of these (although other logical problems with multisource feedback should also receive credit):

Costs. 360-degree feedback can be expensive and time-consuming because several people take time to review several other employees.
Ambiguous/conflicting feedback. With multiple opinions, the 360-degree process can also produce ambiguous and conflicting feedback, so employees may require guidance to interpret the results.
Inflated feedback. Peers may provide inflated rather than accurate feedback to avoid conflicts over the forthcoming year.
Emotional consequences. 360-degree feedback tends to have a stronger emotional effect on people because the feedback comes from several people, not just the supervisor.

Difficulty: Hard
Learning Objective: 05-06 Describe the characteristics of effective goal setting and feedback.
Topic: 05-16 Sources of Feedback

Jack Smith and Sam Clemens are neighbours who work as purchasing managers in different companies in the petrochemical industry. During one neighbourly discussion, Jack learned that Sam’s salary was nearly 15 per cent higher than his even though their job duties were similar. Other than this difference, both received similar benefits and seemed to enjoy their jobs and colleagues. Jack was upset about Sam’s higher salary, although he hid his emotions from Sam. (After all, it wasn’t Sam’s fault that they received different salary levels.) Jack was frustrated not only because Sam received a significantly higher salary, but also because Jack was certain that he worked longer hours and was more productive than Sam. Use the equity theory model to explain Jack’s frustration.

This incident provides a clear example of equity theory at work. Sam is Jack’s comparison other in this case. From Jack’s perspective, the relevant inputs are effort (hours of work) and job performance. There may be other inputs, but they are either equal or less important. The relevant outcomes are salary, benefits and possibly work satisfaction. The incident indicates that Jack feels inequitably rewarded because he perceives that their outcome/input ratios are quite different. Specifically, Jack believes that he provides a greater contribution to his organization (more hours of work and job performance) and yet receives fewer outcomes (lower salary). In other words, he feels underreward inequity. Jack experiences an uncomfortable tension because his outcome/input ratio is lower than Sam’s.

Difficulty: Medium
Learning Objective: 05-07 Summarize equity theory and describe ways to improve procedural justice.
Topic: 05-19 Equity Theory

Jane and Connie are neighbours who both work as purchasing managers in different companies in the petrochemical industry. During one neighbourly discussion, Jane learned that Connie’s salary was nearly 15 per cent higher than hers even though their job duties were similar. Other than this difference, both received similar benefits and seemed to enjoy their jobs and colleagues. Jane was upset about Connie’s higher salary, although she did her best to hide her emotions from Connie. After all, it wasn’t Connie’s fault that they received different salary levels. Jane was frustrated not only because Connie received a significantly higher salary, but also because she was certain that she worked longer hours and was more productive than Connie. According to equity theory research, what will Jane probably do to reduce her upset feelings?

The textbook describes six possible consequences of inequity, but some are more likely to occur than others. One likely consequence is that Jane will try to increase her outcomes, such as by approaching her superiors for a pay increase. Alternatively, Jane might try to reduce her inputs, such as by working fewer hours and with less motivation towards maintaining high performance. If neither of these actions sufficiently reduces her feelings of inequity, Jane might begin looking for a purchasing management job in another company or consider moving into higher-paying jobs within his current organization. Jane’s feelings of inequity might be reduced by changing her perceptions, but this is more difficult given the clarity of salary information. It is also unlikely that Jane would push Connie to work harder or try to reduce her salary. Finally, it may be difficult for Jane to change her comparison other since Connie is a neighbour with the same kind of job.

Difficulty: Medium
Learning Objective: 05-07 Summarize equity theory and describe ways to improve procedural justice.
Topic: 05-19 Equity Theory

Why is it such a challenge for employers to maintain feelings of equity among employees?

Maintaining the perception of equity is not an easy task because employees have different opinions regarding which inputs should be rewarded (e.g. seniority versus performance) and which outcomes are more valuable than others. We must also remember that the comparison other is not easy to identify and may, in fact, represent a distorted interpretation of reality. Lastly, people have different levels of equity sensitivity, so they react differently to inequitable situations.

Difficulty: Medium
Learning Objective: 05-07 Summarize equity theory and describe ways to improve procedural justice.
Topic: 05-18 Organizational Justice

You have been asked to design a training program that will help managers create a better sense of procedural justice in their day-to-day decisions. Describe what this training program would emphasize to improve perceptions of procedural justice.

The textbook discusses the need to provide “voice,” and respect. It is also recommended that supervisors should be prepared to explain their decisions to subordinates. Students can identify any of these, but they also need to describe them in the context of a training program.

Voice. Supervisors need to give employees an opportunity to tell their side of the story or present their arguments before the decision is made.
Bias-free. Supervisors need to present themselves in a neutral way, so they do not show favouritism.
Knowledgeable. Supervisors need to make an effort to understand the facts of the conflict or situation, and to demonstrate their solid knowledge of the situation.
Listens to all. Supervisors need to consider the views of all parties in the decision.
Show respect. Supervisors need to demonstrate that they value employees as human beings and have empathy for their conditions.

Supervisors are obliged to provide explanations for their decisions.

Difficulty: Medium
Learning Objective: 05-07 Summarize equity theory and describe ways to improve procedural justice.
Topic: 05-20 Procedural Justice

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Kaplan And Sadock's Synopsis of Psychiatry 11th Edition by Sadock

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