Cognition International Edition 6th Edition by Robert J. Sternberg – Test Bank

 

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Sample Questions Are Posted Below

 

Chapter 5

Memory: Models and Research Methods

 

Outline For Chapter 5

 

Supplemental Activities

 

1. In-Class Activities

 

1. The Limited Capacity of Short-Term Memory

 

2. Contrasting Episodic and Semantic Memory

 

3. Revisiting the Seven Dwarfs

 

1. Promoting Discussion

 

1. Comparing Memory for Amnesic & Normal Individuals

 

2. Memory and the Movies

 

CogLab Answers

Memory Span

Partial Report

Absolute Identification

Operation Span

Implicit Learning

Modality Effect

Position Error

Irrelevant Speech Effect

Phonological Similarity

Levels of Processing

 

Useful Websites

 

Test Bank

 

Outline for Chapter 5

 

1. INTRODUCTION
2. Complexity of Memory
3. Memory
4. Encoding
5. Storage
6. Retrieval

 

1. TASKS USED FOR MEASURING MEMORY
2. Recall versus Recognition Task
3. Recall
4. Three Main Types of Recall Tasks
5. serial recall
6. free recall

iii. cued recall

1. Relearning
2. Expressive knowledge
3. Recognition
4. Receptive knowledge
5. Implicit versus Explicit Memory Task
6. Explicit Memory
7. Implicit Memory
8. Priming
9. Procedural memory
10.   Process-Dissociation Model
11. Intelligence and the Importance of Culture in Testing

 

III. MODELS OF MEMORY

1. Traditional Models of Memory
2. Hypothetical Constructs
3. Sensory Store
4. Iconic store
5. Sperling’s discovery
6. whole-report procedure
7. partial-report procedure
8. Subsequent refinement
9. capacity

ii.backward visual masking

3. Short-term Store
4. Capacity
5. Retention
6. Long-term Store
7.          Permastore
8. Levels of Processing Model
9. Levels of Processing Framework
10. Physical, phonological, & semantic
11. Self-reference effect
12. Criticisms
13. An Integrative Model: Working Memory
14. Working Memory
15. Visuospatial sketchpad
16. Phonological loop
17. Central executive
18. Episodic buffer
19. Neuroscience and Working Memory
20. Measuring Working Memory
21. Intelligence and Working Memory
22. Multiple Memory Systems
23. Semantic Memory
24. Episodic Memory
25. HERA Model (Hemispheric Encoding/Retrieval Asymmetry)
26. Declarative Memory
27. Nondeclarative Memory
28. Connectionist Perspective
29. Connectionist PDP Model (Parallel Distributed Processing)
30. Nodes
31. Spreading activation
32. Priming effect
33. Parallel vs. serial processing

 

1. EXCEPTIONAL MEMORY AND NEUROPSYCHOLOGY
2. Outstanding Memory
3. Mnemonist
4. Hypermnesia
5. Deficient Memory
6. Amnesia
7. Retrograde amnesia
8. Anterograde amnesia
9. Infantile amnesia
10. Amnesia and the Explicit-Implicit Memory Distinction
11. Amnesia and Neuropsychology
12. Dissociations
13. Double dissociations
14. Alzheimer’s Disease
15. Memory Storage
16. Hippocampus and Other Brain Structures
17. Long-Term Potentiation
18. Neurotransmitters

 

1. KEY THEMES
2. Applied versus Basic Research
3. Biology versus Behavioral Methods
4. Structures versus. Processes

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Supplemental Activities

 

1. In-Class Activities

 

1. The Limited Capacity of Short-Term Memory

 

Telling students about the limited capacity of short-term memory is not very memorable (excuse the pun). Students appreciate this limitation if they discover it through this classroom demonstration.

Tell students that you are going to read a list of letters to them. Instruct them to listen carefully and try to remember them because when you are finished reading the list, they will be asked to recall the letters. Then read the letters that spell the name of your college or university—in reverse! If the name of the school is not longer than 9 letters (the upper limit of STM capacity), include the word “college” or “university.” After students are finished recalling the letters, reread the list for students to score their response. Students will not be able to remember very many of the letters. Ask them why their memory was so poor. Most students will readily indicate that there were too many letters for them to remember. Now that students are aware of the fact that the capacity of STM is limited, tell them that it is limited to five to nine items (an average of seven items plus or minus two). Ask how many students remembered between five and nine of the letters. Most of the students will raise their hands.

Then tell students that you are going to read them another list of letters. This time read the letters that spell the name of your college or university in the forward direction. There will be no need to reread the list for purposes of scoring—students will immediately state that the list of letters formed the name of the school. Then put the letters that you read on the board. Show them that the first list was the letters in the name of the school read backwards and the second list was the letters in name of the school read in the forward direction. Point out that the lists contained the same letters but in the first list they could only remember seven letters but in the second list they could remember all of the letters. Ask the students why that happened. Most likely all of the students will indicate that the presentation of the letters made the difference—in the second list they were able to form a word with the letters but in the first list they could not form a word. Tell the students that this is called “chunking.” Point out that the capacity of STM is still limited to seven items but the size of the item can vary depending on how the information is chunked. An analogy that can be used to help students understand this concept is juggling. The number of items a person can juggle is limited—typically three for novice jugglers. Point out that the person could juggle three small items or three large items (up to a certain point) but the number is limited to three. The same thing is true for STM. It can hold seven small items (e.g., individual letters) or seven large items (e.g., words or even sentences) but the number is (generally) limited to seven.

 

Written by Nancy Jo Melucci, Santa Monica College

 

 

 

 

 

2. Contrasting Episodic and Semantic Memory

 

Tulving (1972) first proposed the distinction between episodic and semantic memory, defining episodic memory as memory for particular events in your life and semantic memory as memory for facts and ideas. When you recall an episodic memory, you recall when the event occurred, what other people were present, what they said, and other details. When you recall a semantic memory, you recall it as a general principle related to other facts and ideas you already know. The handout on the following page lists examples of episodic and semantic memories. Distribute the handout to students, break them into groups, and have them try and find as many differences as they can between episodic and semantic memories.

The different types of memory can be linked with the notion of reconstructive memory. We can forget and distort both types of memory, but we tend to distort episodic memories more so than semantic memories. This is the case because we use more of our semantic memories in real-life situations. For example, every time you play tennis, you use your semantic memories of the rules of the game. In doing so, you refresh your memory, and if your memory happens to be in error, your partner or opponent will correct it.

Many of your semantic memories fit into an overall pattern. For instance, in a biology course, you might learn about the functioning of the circulatory system, the digestive system, and the excretory system. All of your semantic memories about those systems reinforce each other. By contrast, episodic memories seem more thematically independent of one another.

Certain distortions of semantic memory are not considered errors. If you were to describe the events leading up to World War I (a semantic memory) in words entirely different from the ones you had read or heard, your account would still be considered correct. On the other hand, if you had tried to describe the conversations and actions that led up to your starting a fight last night (an episodic memory), only a word-for-word account would be considered correct.

 

Written by Nancy Jo Melucci, Santa Monica College

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Examples of Episodic and Semantic Memories

 

 

Episodic	Semantic
I went to Miami during spring break last year.	The weather in Miami is almost always warm.
I read Chapter 5 of this textbook last Thursday.	The short-term memory can hold small amounts of information for longer periods of time.
Professor Ben Zene gave a very funny guest lecture in my Chem 101 class during my freshman year.	A potassium ion has a chemical valence of +1.
I ate at a Thai restaurant once—it made me sick.	Thai food tends to be hot and spicy.
I went to my first professional football game last Sunday.	The Cincinnati Bengals’ colors are black and orange.
I’ll never forget the day I got married.	Renting a tuxedo is very expensive.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Written by Nancy Jo Melucci, Santa Monica College

 

3. Revisiting the Seven Dwarfs

 

This exercise expands on Miserandino (1991) modification of Meyer and Hilterbrand’s (1984) demonstration on recognition and recall. The intent of the exercise is to provide a demonstration that allows you to discuss and compare various memory processes. “An interesting and effective way to learn about principles of memory is to examine their own thought processes as they perform a memory task.” (p. 170)  This exercise is divided into 5 tasks.

 

Task 1 (Recall):

The first task is a recall task. Students are requested to take out a piece of paper and list all of the seven dwarfs. For this exercise there are two important instructions. First, every item (name) that comes to mind should be written down even if it is not a dwarf name. This point may need to be emphasized. This is important because these items will be looked at later. Second, given that there are additional tasks to perform, students are not to mention any of the dwarf names until the end of the demonstration.

 

Task 2 (Cued recall):

For the second part of this demonstration, provide some type of cue for each of the dwarfs. One fairly simple type of cue would be the first letter of each name (B,D,D,G,H,S,S – Bashful, Doc, Dopey, Grumpy, Happy, Sleepy, and Sneezy). Perhaps a more effective cue would be to provide a picture of the seven dwarfs. This allows for a discussion on how some cues may be more effective than other cues.

 

Task 3 (Recognition):

The third part of this demonstration is a recognition task. Tell students to turn their papers over.  Their task is to identify the dwarf names they recognize by writing them down from a list of dwarf and non-dwarf names. A list is provided below that includes a number of foils (according to one website, some of these were potential dwarf names that were rejected by Disney; the list is a composite from a number of sources and also includes a few responses obtained from using this demonstration in class).

 

Task 4 (Second recall):

The fourth task for this demonstration is a repeat of the recall task. Again, request that students write down on a separate piece of paper the names of the seven dwarfs. The second time for the recall task is easier (can tie priming in to why the task is easier the second time).

 

Task 5 (Serial recall):

The final task is a serial recall task. Request that students write down the names of the seven dwarfs in the order in which they first appeared in the movie (an impossible task for most, if not all, of us).

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Discussion Issues:

1. For the first recall task, have students look at their incorrect responses to see if there are any patterns. You may have to prompt them (e.g., look at the beginning letter of each name, ending of each name, number of syllables). Miserandio (1991) points out a number of common patterns that occur for the recall. Students will typically find some type of organization often including sound, letter, and meaning.

 

1. SOUND:

• Number of syllables: many of the incorrect names will have two syllables. This is consistent with a number of the dwarf names that are also two syllables in length.
• Ending: many of the guesses in a “y” sound. Again, this is true for many of the dwarf names. The two names often forgotten are Doc and Bashful, which are not consistent with this rule.

 

1. LETTER: incorrect names are more likely to begin with the letter “s” and “d.” These are the only two letters that have more than one dwarf name. A particular example in which two syllables and starts with an “s” is sleazy (several semesters in a row at least one student per class came up with this as a response).

 

1. MEANING: incorrect names that are similar in meaning to a dwarf name (e.g., for Happy they may generate Smiley or Cheerful, for Grumpy they may generate Crabby, Gloomy, or Grouchy).

 

1. DIFFERENT CATEGORY OF NAMES: often several students will generate names from the wrong category. Some of the more common categories I hear are Santa’s reindeer, Care Bears, and the Smurfs. This can lead to a discussion on priming and retrieval of related items.

 

2. Comparing the different types of task.
3. Ask students which is easier—recognition or recall?
4. Ask students which of the recall tasks is easier. Why?

 

3. Various Types of Recall:
4. Serial recall: recall the names of the seven dwarfs as they first appeared in the movie.
5. Free recall: what they did for this exercise—the order in which the dwarfs names were recalled was not important.
6. Cue recall: Some cues are more effect than others. In other words, cues differ in the extent to which they may be useful in eliciting information.

 

 

From the Following List, Identify the names of the seven dwarfs:

 

 

Crabby              Sniffy                          Gabby                          Cupid                       Doc

Wheezy             Goofy                          Grouchy           Shy                          Teach

Dasher              Sleepy                         Droopy              Lazy                        Pop

Wishful            Grumpy             Bashful             Scrappy             Nifty

Jumpy                          Gloomy             Dopey                          Silly                       Sneezy

Happy                          Shorty              Smiley                         Cheerful     Dumpy

Fearful             Stubby                         Tearful            Puffy                      Burpy

 

 

 

 

1. Promoting Discussion

 

1. Comparing Memory for Amnesic & Normal Individuals
   (This exercise can be used as a homework assignment or as an in-class activity)

 

1. Graf and Schacter (1985) conducted an experiment in which participants were shown pairs of unrelated words (e.g. “computer,” “building”). After the presentation of each word pair, they were told to construct a sentence that contained each word pair (“The office building contains 54 computers.”). Two tasks were then administered. In the first task, fragment completion (the first three letters for each word fragment was provided), participants were to fill in the blanks to complete the word (e.g. cog _ _ _ _ _ _ = cognitive). Some of these items were in fact from the word pairs shown earlier (participants were not told that their memory was being tested of the prior word pairs (hint, hint)). The second task was (cued) recall. Half of each pair is presented and the participant is to provide the other word from the pair (e.g., s/he was provided the word “computer” and his/her response should be “building”). For this task, participants did know their memory for the prior word pairs was being tested (hint, hint).

 

Here are the approximate percent correct for the various conditions:

Fragment

Recall       Completion

Normal Subject            68%             34%

Amnesic Subject           5%              31%

 

1. Graph the data from the experiment.
   b. Interpret the results.
2. Using concepts from the chapter on memory, provide some potential explanations for their

results.

1. Explain what implications these results have for the notion that individuals with anterograde

amnesia cannot learn new information.

 

2. Memory and the Movies

(This assignment can be used as homework to stimulate discussion the next class)

 

Take any character from a movie who has/had a significant memory deficit, and, using terms from the chapters on memory, explain what the memory problem is and why it occurs (warning: often movies mislabel memory problem, so make sure you understand the nature of the memory problem).

 

Your response should include the following:

1. The name of the character
2. The name of the movie
3. Nature of the memory problem—a description of the difficulties the individual is having as

well as an example or two of the situation(s) in which the problem(s) occurs.

4. An explanation of the memory problem(s) (using terms from the memory chapters) and why

it occurs.

 

CogLab

 

 

 

– Memory Span –

 

• Student Manual Answers

 

Basic Questions

 

1. For which type of stimuli was your memory span the longest? For which was it the shortest?

 

Answers will vary. Typically participants will report that their memory span was the longest for the number, letters that sound different, or the short words. Participants often report that their memory span was shortest for letters that sound similar or for long words.

 

2. What three types of mistakes could one make in recalling the stimulus sequence that would lead to it being scored as incorrect?

 

If a participant reports an item that was not part of the sequence, fails to report an item of the sequence, or reports sequence out of order the trial will be counted as incorrect.

 

3. Approximately how many items can the average person hold in short-term memory?

 

On average most people can hold approximately seven items in memory. The number of items one can hold in memory can vary based on individual differences, how the items are stored in memory, and the properties of the items being stored.

 

Advanced Questions

 

1. Typically, when the stimulus sequence consists of long words, one’s memory span is shorter than when the stimulus sequence consists of short words. Why might this be the case?

 

The number of items that can be held in short term memory is dependent on a verbal process. We know that long words take more time to verbalize than short words. In a given amount of time, more short words can be verbalized than long words, and this might be why one has a longer memory span for short words.

 

2. Typically, when the stimulus sequence consists of similar sounding letters, one’s memory span is shorter than when the stimulus sequence consists of dissimilar sounding letters. Why might this be the case?

 

Letters that sound alike when verbalized are easily confused. Since our short term memory span is rooted in a verbal process, similar sounding letters are more likely to be confused with one another in STM than are letters that sound differently.

 

3. You have a friend who is taking Biology, Anatomy and Physiology, Comparative Politics, and American Government and he/she has tests in all of these classes on the same day, this upcoming Friday. Your friend decided to study for two of the exams on Wednesday and two of the exams on Thursday. Based on what you have learned about memory span, which classes would you advise him/her to study for on each of these days? Why?

 

Your friend might should schedule separate study days for their Biology Test and their Anatomy and Physiology Test. They also should study for their Comparative Politics test on a different day than they study for their American Government test. The reason is that Biology and Anatomy and Physiology have related material and it would be easy to confuse the material for one class with the material from the other class. For example, you may incorporate information from your Biology materials into your test answers for your Anatomy and Physiology class. A similar argument can be made for not studying for Comparative Politics and American Government on the same day.

 

Discussion Question

 

1. Memory span has been linked to intelligence. Suppose two individuals from different parts of the world were given the same memory test (in their respective native languages) and one individual showed a much longer memory span than the other. Using what you have learned from this demonstration, why is it unfair to say that the individual with the longer memory span is most likely more intelligent than the individual with the shorter memory span?

 

This demonstration has shown that short term memory span is controlled by a verbal process and this is why our memory span for long words is shorter than it is for short words. If two individuals that speak different languages are given a list of the same words (each in their own respective languages) than one of the main factors in determining who will have a larger memory span will be the time it takes to verbalize each of the word lists. It will be easier to remember more items from the list that takes less time to verbalize than for the list that takes longer to verbalize. Therefore, when using memory span as a predictor of intelligence one needs to make sure the memory span measure is fair.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

• Test Bank

 

Multiple Choice Questions

 

1. A person with a large memory span is likely to do well on …
2. a reading comprehension test.
3. an intelligence test.
4. a problem solving test.
5. All of the above

 

Answer: d.

 

2. Approximately how many items can the average person hold in working memory?
3. 2
4. 4
5. 7
6. 10

 

Answer: c.

 

3. Which of the following lists of letters would you least likely be able to remember?
4. d, g, e, p, t, c, and b
5. a, b, c, d, e, f, and g
6. q, l, m, r, s, n, and y
7. h, j, u, o, w, k, and c

 

Answer: a.

 

4. According to the predictions of the memory span demonstration, for which of the following types of material should a participant have the shortest memory span?
5. digits
6. long words
7. letters that sound different
8. short words

 

Answer: b.

 

5. Memory-span is a measure of …
6. long-term memory capacity.
7. working memory capacity.
8. how long one can think about a given memory.
9. None of the above

 

Answer: b.

 

 

True/False Question

 

1. ___ According to the predictions of the memory span demonstration, one’s memory span for numbers should be longer than their memory span for letters that sound similar.

 

Answer: True

           

Short Answer Question

 

1. Describe the two major properties of working memory.

 

First, working memory has a limited capacity. It can hold about seven items at one time. Second, working memory holds information for a limited amount of time. It only holds items for a few seconds.

 

Essay Question

 

1. How do the predicted results of the memory span demonstration support that claim that a person’s working memory capacity is related to a verbal process?

 

This essay is worth 6 points.

Point 1: The memory span demonstration predicts that a participant’s memory span will be

  longer for short words than for long words.

Point 2 and 3: This supports the claim that working memory capacity is related to a verbal

  process because it takes longer to verbalize long words then in does to verbalize 

  short words.

Point 4: The memory span demonstration also predicts that a participant’s memory span will

  belonger for different sounding letters than for similar sounding letters.

Point 5 and 6: This supports the claim that working memory capacity is related to a verbal

        process because similar sounding letters are more likely to interfere with one  

       another because of their phonological similarity than are letters that sound different.

 

– Partial Report –

 

• Student Manual Answers

 

Basic Questions

 

1. In this experiment, how would one measure the interstimulus interval (ISI)?

 

One would time the interval between the offset of the letter matrix and the onset of the tone that indicated which line of the matrix was to be reported.

 

2. At what ISI did you show the most accurate recall? At what ISI did you show the least accurate recall?

 

Typically participants accurately recall the highest percentage of letters from the target row at the shortest ISI (20 ms) and show the least accurate recall at the longest ISI (1000 ms).

 

3. In general, participant’s recall accuracy decreases as ISI increases. Explain why this relationship exists.

 

Experiments using the partial report methodology have shown that the limiting factor in reporting is not one’s perceptual capacity but rather it deals with the time duration that items can be held in one’s sensory store. Since items fade away  from one’s sensory store in just a few hundred milliseconds, the longer the interval between the offset of the stimulus and the recall of the items from that stimulus the worse one’s recall is going to be.

 

Advanced Questions

 

1. In a partial report experiment like the one in this demonstration, you are shown a 4 x 4 matrix of letters and are cued to report the letters from the first row. Assuming you recalled three of the four letters in the cued row, how many of the letters in the matrix were available in your sensory memory at the offset of the letter matrix?

 

Using the logic of the partial report method you would say that approximately twelve letters of the matrix were available at the offset of the letter matrix. There are four rows in the matrix and you should be able to recall about three letters from any of these four rows when cued for a given row. Four letters multiplied by four possible rows equals twelve letters.

 

2. Using your personal data, what would you predict your recall accuracy would be with a 700ms ISI? Using the global data, make a prediction for someone’s recall accuracy with a 700ms ISI.

 

Participants did not complete trials in this demonstration that used 700ms ISIs, but they did complete trials that used 300ms and 1000ms ISIs. An estimation of performance for an ISI of 700ms can be made using the curves from the individual and global data plots provided at the end of the demonstration. Participants will need to find the point on the data curve that corresponds to a 700ms ISI and see what the corresponding percent recalled value is at that point.

 

3. You only briefly see a holiday shopping list for your family members before it gets taken away by a gust of wind. What strategy should you employ to maximize your accuracy in remembering what was on the list?

 

In this demonstration we saw that one’s recall accuracy decreased over time. To maximize your accuracy you would want to write down and/or rehearse the items on the list as soon as possible. The longer you wait to try and remember the items on the list the worse your memory is likely to be.

Discussion Question

 

1. Say you’re watching television with a group of friends and something happens that makes everyone laugh but you. Afterward, everyone is talking about what made them laugh, but you do not remember seeing it at all. Is it that you did not see it or that you do not remember it? Explain.

 

Unless you were not looking at the television or blinked at a key moment you most likely saw what made everyone laugh but do not remember it. Experiments using partial report have shown that our perceptual capacity is quite large but the amount of time our sensory store can hold perceptual information is limited. It is likely that you saw the item that made everyone else laugh but did not pay attention to it; therefore you did not select it as an item for further processing Without cognitive processing an item in your sensory store is only going to be held for a short time before it is forgotten.

 

Multiple Choice Questions

 

1. In an experiment like the one in the partial report demonstration, from which matrix row should participants be able to recall the most letters from?
2. The first row
3. The second row
4. The last row
5. All of the rows should be recalled equally well

 

Answer: d.

 

2. Which of the following best describes one’s perceptual span?
3. The range of visual stimuli that our visual system is sensitive to
4. The maximum number of items a one can hold in long term memory
5. The amount of information that one get from a single glance
6. None of the above

 

Answer: c.

 

3. If you briefly glance at a picture, what limits your ability to report what you had seen?
4. Your ability to recall the items seen
5. Your ability to perceive the items seen
6. Your ability to process the items seen
7. None of the above

 

Answer: a.

 

 

4. The partial report demonstration predicts that participants will correctly remember more letters when the delay from the offset of the letter matrix until the onset of the tone is ________.
5. short
6. intermediate
7. long
8. The delay should not affect the number of letters correctly remembered

 

Answer: c.

 

5. You see an advertisement on the side of a bus for a product you would like to purchase. You only briefly see the phone number you need to order this product before the bus drives away. Approximately how long do you have to rehearse and/or write down this phone number?
6. Less than a second
7. Three to five seconds
8. Twenty seconds
9. As long as you need

 

Answer: a.

 

True/False Question

 

1. ___ In the partial report demonstration an arrow cued the participant as to which row of the letter matrix they were to report on.

 

Answer: False

 

Short Answer Question

 

1. What is the main prediction of the partial report demonstration?

 

A participant’s percentage of recalled items will decrease as the interval between the offset of the matrix and the onset of the tone increases.

 

Essay Question

 

1. Describe Sperling’s (1960) partial report procedure. What did his original experiment teach us about perceptual span and the capabilities of our perceptual system?

 

This essay is worth 6 points.

Point 1:           Participants were shown a matrix of letters.

Point 2:           After the offset of the matrix a tone was presented which indicated which row of the matrix the participant was supposed to letters from.

Point 3:           Previous studies had suggested that people perceptual spans were limited to             approximately 5 items because of limits in our perceptual system.

Point 4: Sperling found that participants were very accurate in reporting the letters from the cued row, regardless of which row was cued.

Point 5: This showed that at the time of the tone the entire matrix was available in sensory memory.

Point 6: Moreover, that perceptual span was not limited by our perceptual system, but rather by our ability to recall what we had perceived.

– Absolute Identification –

 

• Student Manual Answers

 

Basic Questions

 

1. In what dimension did the tones in this demonstration vary?

 

The frequencies of the tones were varied.

 

2. If you were given extensive training on this task, how would your results change?

 

With extensive training a participant would likely get better at this task, but would never be perfect. In seems that our perceptual system has a limited ability to distinguish between items that only vary along one dimension, and this limitation cannot be overcome with practice.

 

3. Which tones were you most accurately able to identify? Which tones did you have the most difficulty identifying?

 

Most participants most accurately identify Tones 1 and 9 and least accurately identify tones 4, 5, and 6.

 

Advanced Questions

 

1. Using the global data, graph the results of this demonstration by plotting the tones presented (1-9) on the x-axis and the average number of times each tone was correctly identified on the y-axis. What is the general shape of the curve you just plotted?

 

Based on the predictions of the experiment the curve should look like a u-shaped function.

 

2. Identify a category of items for which you are good at distinguishing among its members. Why is your identification performance of items within this category so good?

 

People are typically good at identifying faces, letters, animals, and types of cars. It is easy to identify items within these categories because the members of these categories vary along many dimensions. For example, cars vary in their many dimensions including their shape, height, width, and color.

 

3. You are designing an interface for a control room at a factory. One of the factory employees shows you the interface they currently use. One of the features of the old interface is a light indicator that goes off multiple times a day. Its flashing rate indicates one of 7 responses that the control-room operator needs to make. Why is this aspect of the current interface design problematic? What could you do to make it better?

 

The light indicator only varies in one stimulus dimension making it difficult for the control-room operator to identify the course of action he/she needs to take. To make it easier for the control-room operator to know what type of response they need to make the interface could have a unique color for each flashing rate of the light indicator.

 

Discussion Question

 

1. In what ways are the predicted results of this demonstration similar to the typical results from an ordered serial recall task?

 

The percent correct response patterns for both tasks are u-shaped functions. In a serial recall task participants usually perform well for items that appear early and late on the list while performing much worse on items in the middle list positions. In this demonstration, participants usually perform better on the tones with low and high frequencies and not as well on the tones with intermediate frequencies.

 

 

• Test Bank Answers

 

Multiple Choice Questions

 

1. In a typical absolute-identification experiment, what can an individual do to achieve perfect performance?
2. Complete an extensive session of trials
3. Use distributed practice
4. Practice in a number of different contexts
5. None of the above

 

Answer: d.

 

2. Which of the following would be most difficult?
3. Identifying a number of stimuli that vary along one dimension
4. Identifying a number of stimuli that vary along two dimensions
5. Identifying a number of stimuli that vary along three dimensions
6. All would be equally difficult

 

Answer: a.

 

 

3. You are given a five blocks. The blocks are all identical except that they all have different weights. When you got the blocks you were able to hold each of them and get a feel for their relative weights. The blocks weigh three, four, five, six, and seven pounds respectively. If you were given each of the blocks separately and had to identify each of them, which of the following would be easiest to identify?
4. The three pound block
5. The four pound block
6. The five pound block
7. The six pound block

 

Answer: a.

 

4. The absolute-identification demonstration predicts that participants will be better at correctly identifying the ________ line/s than the ________ line/s.
5. medium length, shortest
6. shortest, medium length
7. longest, shortest
8. shortest, longest

 

Answer: b.

 

5. In the absolute-identification experiment, when a participant makes an error what type of error is usually made?
6. Participants confuse lines that are paired opposites
7. Participants confuse lines that are presented one after the other
8. Participants confuse lines of similar length
9. None of the above

 

Answer: c.

 

True/False Question

 

1. ___ Identifying a large number of stimuli that vary on more than one dimension is typically very easy.

 

Answer: True

 

Short Answer Question

 

1. What are the predicted results of the absolute-identification demonstration?

 

The lines are of varied length. Participants will be better at correctly identifying the shortest and the longest lines than they are at correctly identifying the medium length lines.

 

Essay Question

 

1. Describe a typical absolute-identification experiment. How do the typical results of these types of experiments support the idea that people are limited in the number of items they can identify?

 

This essay is worth 6 points.

Point 1: Participants are shown a set of stimuli that only vary along one dimension.

Point 2: Each stimulus is labeled with an identifying symbol.

Point 3: The participant is then randomly shown a stimulus and asked to identify it by producing

  its respective label.

Points 4 and 5: People seem to be limited in the number of items they can identify when a set of

  stimuli only vary along one dimension. Absolute-Identification experiments have shown

  that stimuli are difficult to identify when they only vary along one dimension.

Point 6: Furthermore, regardless of the amount of practice participants are never perfect at

                          identifying the various stimuli.

 

– Operation Span –

 

• Student Manual Answers

 

Basic Questions

 

1. Operation span correlates with other tasks involving working memory. What does it mean if two variables have a positive correlation? What does it mean if they have a negative correlation?

 

Two variables have a positive correlation if as one variable increases the other variable increases. Two variables have a negative correlation if as one variable decreases the other variable decreases.

 

2. How is operation span calculated in this demonstration?

 

Participants were given math problems followed by a word to be recalled during a test phase at the end of the trial. Each trial of the demonstration consisted of two to six math problem/word pairs. There was a total of fifteen trials. If a participant successfully remembered all of the words from the trail during the test phase they were awarded a number of points equal to the number of words presented in that trial. A participant’s operation span was calculated as the sum of all the points awarded from each of the fifteen trials.

 

3. How is operation span different from what is typically described as memory span?

 

Operation span, like memory span, takes into account the number of items that can be stored. Unlike memory span, operation span also takes into account the amount of information that can be processed and actively manipulated.

Advanced Questions

 

1. Operation-span experiments provide evidence that we have a general pool of resources for working memory. What implications does this have for multi-tasking?

 

Assuming we have specific resource pools, if one is doing a spatial task while also doing a verbal task there should be little cost involved when compared to doing each of the tasks separately. If we have a general pool of resources, then the combination of the types of tasks one is doing should not affect whether or not there is a cost for doing the two tasks at once. All that matters for multi-tasking, using a general resource model, is the amount of resources needed for the tasks rather than the types of resources needed.

 

2. While you are driving, your roommate reads you a list of items you need to get at the store. Why might it be difficult for you to effectively remember these items?

 

Remembering a list of items you need at the store is a verbal task. Driving is primarily a motor/spatial task, although certainly some verbal resources are also used. In this demonstration we have seen our working memory for a verbal task can be limited by other non-verbal tasks that require working memory. For example, the driving task may impair your ability to remember the list of items you need at the store.

 

3. Name a job that would require someone with a high operation span. Explain your answer.

People who have jobs that require them to deal with a lot of different types of information at once, for instance air traffic controllers, pilots, surgeons, and race car drivers would all need a high operation span.

An air traffic controller needs to monitor the locations, altitudes, and flight paths of numerous airplanes at once while also communicating with and directing pilots of these airplanes.

 

Discussion Question

 

1. In this demonstration, the math problems typically impair one’s ability to remember the list words. Why do you think this is the case?

 

The math problems could affect one’s ability to remember the list words because they require attention, processing resources, and prevent rehearsal of the list words. The math problems require attentional and processing resources which leaves fewer resources to process and rehearse the list words.

 

 

 

 

 

 

• Test Bank Answers

 

Multiple Choice Questions

 

1. You notice you have trouble driving when you are also talking on the phone. This observation would be consistent with which of the following.
2. People have one general resource pool
3. People have a number of specific resource pools
4. People have at least two types of working memory
5. None of the above

 

Answer: a.

 

2. Our operation span reflects our ability to ________ information.
3. store
4. manipulate
5. process
6. All of the above

 

Answer: d.

 

3. In the operation span demonstration participants were asked to …
4. recall a list of numbers
5. recall a list of words.
6. recall a list of math problems.
7. None of the above

 

Answer: b.

 

4. In the operation span demonstration, the math problems seem to …
5. use some of the same resources that are need to remember the list words.
6. use different resources than the one’s needed to remember the list words.
7. play no role in one’s ability to remember a the list of words.
8. None of the above

 

Answer: a.

 

5. What does one’s operation span predict?
6. Verbal ability
7. Reading completion
8. Memory span
9. All of the above

 

Answer: d.

 

True/False Question

 

1. ___ One’s operation span is a good predictor of one’s performance on a memory task.

 

Answer: True

 

Short Answer Question

 

1. What do the general findings concerning operation span suggest about the resources utilized by working memory?

 

Operation span findings suggest that working memory uses a general pool of resources rather than a number of specific resource pools.

 

Essay Question

 

1. Compare and contrast operation span and memory span? Describe the primary difference in how each of these spans is calculated?

 

This essay is worth 6 points.

Point 1:                 Operation and memory span are measures of working memory.

Point 2:                Memory span measures the number of items that can be stored in working

                                    memory.

Point 3 & 4:         Operation span measures the amount of information that can be processed,

 stored, and manipulated.

Point 5:                 Memory span is calculated by measuring the number of items (verbal)

presented in sequence that one can correctly remember after the presentation of the list.

Point 6:                 Operation span is calculated by measuring the number of items (verbal)

presented in sequence that one can correctly remember, while doing a computational (mathematical) task in between the presentation of each list item.

 

– Implicit Learning –

 

• Student Manual Answers

 

Basic Questions

 

1. What is the main difference between explicit and implicit learning?

 

With explicit learning an individual is aware of the information they have gained. With implicit learning an individual cannot report the information they have gained, they are unaware that they have learned anything.

2. While doing this demonstration did you feel as though you were learning a pattern of responses? Were you surprised to find out you participated in the version (random/pattern) of the experiment you did?

 

Participants that were in the random version of the experiment should report that they did not feel as though they were learning a pattern of responses and should not be surprised to find they completed the random version of the experiment.

In the pattern version of the experiment, if implicit learning did take place, participants will report that they did not feel as though they were learning a pattern of responses and will likely be surprised to find out they completed the pattern version of the experiment.

 

3. Using the graph from the demonstration’s global data, determine if implicit learning is taking place? Explain why you drew the conclusion that you did.

 

If there is a decrease in reaction time across the blocks of the pattern version of the experiment larger than in the random version of the experiment one could conclude that implicit learning is taking place. One way to make this comparison is to find the difference between the reaction time for block one and the block with the lowest reaction time for each version of the demonstration.

 

Advanced Questions

 

1. You have just received you driver’s license and the first place you drive to on your own is to your music lesson. When you get to your lesson, your instructor asks you what driving route you took to get there. You have a great deal of trouble describing your driving route to your instructor, but obviously you had no problem getting there. Explain how this could happen.

 

You have ridden to your music lesson many times, but since you were not driving you may not have been actively paying attention on how to get there. Nevertheless, you learned the driving route to your music lesson because you have made the trip so many times. Your learning of the route was implicit because even though you are not consciously aware of the route needed to get to your music lesson you can still navigate it.

 

2. You just finished taking a mid-term exam in your hardest class of the semester. Despite it being a multiple-choice test (there were only four options to choose from for each question), you know you did not do very well. You can honestly say that you did not know the answer to one question; in fact, you could not even eliminate any of the multiple-choice options. When you get your test back, you are pleasantly surprised to see you received a 60%. How could you have thought you did so much worse than you did?

 

You reported having to guess on all of the test questions meaning that you probably should have only gotten 25% of the test questions correct, but in fact you got 60% of the test questions correct.  Your performance was well above chance so you most likely knew more of the test material than you thought you did. People can learn information implicitly, without their awareness, and this is what might have happened in this case. In your studies and class time you likely picked up a great deal of information of which you were unaware. During the test, even though you felt like you were guessing, you actually knew quite a bit of the information.

 

3. Name three activities that are typically learned implicitly.

 

Procedures and motor skills are often learned implicitly. Although procedures and motor skills can be broken down into components people often report that they can just do the task/procedure and often cannot describe how to do it or specifically how they learned it. Most people have an understanding of language and can use it effectively but they often do not know the explicit rules and cannot tell you how they learned language other than they just did. Skills such as hitting a golf ball, catching a football, or playing a musical instrument are often done implicitly. For skills like these people often cannot explicitly tell you what they are doing or even how they learned to do it.

 

Discussion Question

 

1. In a complex implicit-learning task, sometimes people are better off just paying attention to the task instead of trying to figure out the underlying pattern or structure. Why do you think this is the case?

 

The patterns in these types of tasks are often very complex, and trying to figure them out may just result in an individual thinking they have found a pattern that is not really there. Trying to utilize a pattern that is not accurate will just hinder one’s ability to learn the real pattern.

 

• Test Bank Answers

 

Multiple Choice Questions

 

1. The implicit learning demonstration predicts that you will learn the rule for the presentation of the dots …
2. but only if you consciously try to learn the rule.
3. but you won’t be able to consciously identify the rule.
4. but it won’t be evident by looking at your reaction times to the dots
5. None of the above

 

Answer: b.

 

2. In the pattern condition of the implicit learning demonstration, typically participant’s reaction times decrease over the first few trials. What is done to see if the participant is truly learning to pattern or if they are just getting better because of practice with the task?
3. A transfer test
4. An implicit memory test
5. An explicit memory test
6. An implicit learning test

 

Answer: a.

3. At the end of the implicit learning demonstration, if a participant correctly identified the pattern of the stimuli then they experienced …
4. no learning
5. implicit learning
6. explicit learning
7. serial learning

 

Answer: c.

 

4. Which of the following best describes implicit learning?
5. Learning that occurs without one’s conscious knowledge
6. Learning that requires conscious intent and effort
7. Learning that utilizes multiple levels of processing
8. Learning that takes place while teaching another

 

Answer: a.

 

5. In the patterned condition of the implicit learning demonstration, implicit learning occurred if
6. the participant is not be able to identify the stimulus pattern at the end of the experiment.
7. the participant’s reaction times decrease over the course of the experiment.
8. the participant’s reaction times were slowed in the transfer test block.
9. All of the above

 

Answer: d.

 

True/False Question

 

1. ___ Implicit learning usually occurs after short but effortful study periods.

 

Answer: False

 

Short Answer Question

 

1. In an implicit serial-pattern learning experiment reaction times can be used to see if learning has occurred, but even if learning has occurred how can experimenters find out if the learning has been implicit?

 

Experimenters can ask participants to identify the pattern that they were working with. If the participants are able to identify the pattern then the learning was not implicit, but if participants are unaware of the pattern than the learning was implicit.

 

Essay Question

 

1. In a typical implicit serial-pattern learning experiment, what is a transfer test and why does it play an important in determining if a participant is implicitly learning the serial-pattern?

 

This essay is worth 7 points.

Point 1:                 A participant in an implicit serial-pattern learning experiment is presented

with a pattern of stimuli and is asked to make responses based upon each stimulus they are presented with.

Point 2:                 There reaction times to each stimulus are measured.

Point 3:                 After the participant has been exposed to the target pattern for some time the

participant often starts making their responses to each stimulus more quickly.

Point 4:           The problem is the experimenter doesn’t know if the participant’s speeded response times are because of the participant’s continued practice with the task of if they are the result of the participant’s learning of the pattern.

Point 5:                 In the transfer test the pattern is changed without the participant’s knowledge.

Point 6:           If the participant’s reaction times same the same then the experimenter can conclude that the speeded reaction times were simply due to practice with the task.

Point 7:           If the participant’s reaction times are slowed then the experimenter can conclude that the speeded reaction times were likely due to the participant’s implicit learning of the pattern.

 

–        Modality Effect –

 

• Student Manual Answers

 

Basic Questions

 

1. Describe your personal data. For which list position was your recall performance the highest? For which was it the lowest?

 

Answers will vary. Typically participants show high performance for the first list position item and low performance on the middle list positioned items.

 

2. Does your data show the modality effect? Why or why not?

 

A participant’s data shows the modality effect if they correctly reported a higher proportion of the list items in the last position when the items were presented aloud as compared to when the list items were presented visually.

 

3. What is sensory memory?

 

Sensory memory is a store of raw sensory information. In sensory memory, information is stored in the same form it is received by the sense organs. At this point the information has not been manipulated by higher cognitive processes.

 

 

Advanced Questions

 

1. Using what you have learned from this demonstration, what study tips would you give to a friend who has an important exam coming up?

 

It is clear that information presented in different modalities is held and processed at least to some degree separately. When studying it would be helpful not only to study your class materials by reading them silently to yourself but also by rehearsing and thinking through the information aloud.

 

2. When looking up a phone number in the yellow pages, what can you do to improve your recall of that phone number later?

 

One should read the number aloud to improve their recall of that number later. Studies with the modality effect show that visual and auditory information is dealt with differently, therefore saying the number aloud gives one an additional source of information that can aid in recall.

 

3. What occupations might be able to use the findings from experiments on the modality effect in their work? Explain.

 

Teachers, students, waiters/waitresses, and salespeople all need to accurately remember information they receive and/or want others to remember the information they are giving. Individuals with occupations like the ones mentioned here could benefit from giving/receiving information in more than one modality. For instance if a customer at a restaurant points to a menu item they would like to order their waiter/waitress may want to repeat the menu item to increase the likelihood the will get it correct when they need to recall it later.

  

Discussion Question

 

1. Why does the modality effect only show up for the last one or two items in the list?

 

It is thought that the modality effect results from the participant getting extra information from the auditory presentation of the list. There is a benefit from the auditory presentation because information is additionally stored in one’s auditory sensory memory. Items are only stored in auditory sensory memory for a very short time, less than one second, therefore the benefit from the auditory presentation will only show up for the last one or two items of the list.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

• Test Bank

 

Multiple Choice Questions

 

1. When a list of items is heard people tend to remember the ________ list items better than if the list of items was read silently to oneself.
2. early
3. middle
4. late
5. All of the list items are better remembered

 

Answer: c.

 

2. People have sensory memory for …
3. auditory information.
4. olfactory information.
5. tactile information.
6. All of the above

 

Answer: d.

 

3. In the Modality Effect demonstration, the auditory presentation of the list leads to better recall of the last few items in the lest than the visual presentation of the list because …
4. you have information about how the list sounds.
5. people like listening more than they like reading.
6. the presentation of the items on the list was slower.
7. the presentation of the items on the list was faster.

 

Answer: a.

 

4. Sensory memory has a ________ capacity for information. Sensory memory holds information for a ________ amount of time.
5. large, short
6. large, long
7. small, short
8. small, long

 

Answer: a.

 

 

5. If a list is ________ there is an advantage in remember the last items on the list as compared to when the list is read silently to oneself.
6. lip-read
7. mouthed silently
8. heard
9. All of the above

 

Answer: d.

 

 

True/False Question

 

1. ___ Information presented in multiple modalities is often remembered better than information presented in one modality

 

Answer: True

 

Short Question

 

1. What is the independent and dependent variable in the Modality Effect demonstration?

 

The independent variable is the modality of the list presentation and the dependent variable is the proportion of digits recalled in each serial position.

 

Essay Question

 

1. What is sensory memory and how is it related to the Modality Effect?

 

This essay is worth 6 points.

Point 1:     Sensory memory is a form of memory that stores unprocessed data in the same form it is received from the environment.

Point 2:     We have sensory memory stores for sensory information including auditory information.

Point 3:     Sensory memory only stores information for a short period of time before it is lost.

Point 4:     The Modality Effect is an advantage in recalling the last few items in a list when the list is heard as compared to when it is read silently to oneself.

Point 5:     When a list is heard a person is able to use information about how the list sounds to help recall the items of the list.

Point 6:     Since auditory information is only kept in sensory memory for a short time, information about how the list sounds is only available to help remember the last few items on the list.

 

 

-Position Error –

 

• Student Manual Answers

 

Basic Questions

 

1. When trying to recall a list of items in order, what are the two most common position errors?

 

One of the most common position errors is remembering a list item as being one position earlier than it actually is and the other is remembering a list item as being one position later than it actually is.

 

2. What does a position error analysis tell about memory as compared to an overall performance analysis?

 

An overall performance analysis tells us about our percent correct, but it does not tell us anything about the types of errors we are making. Forgetting an item is on the list is different than remembering an item in the wrong position. A position error analysis allows us to evaluate the types of errors that were made not just when the errors were made.

 

3. What target position did you most accurately recall? What target position did you have the most trouble with at recall?

 

Answers will vary. Typically participants report that the last item position and the first item position were easy to recall, while the middle target positions were more difficult to recall.

 

Advanced Questions

 

1. Look at your data as well as the global data. What items in the list seem to have related response patterns?

 

It is usually very clear that the first and the last items seem to have closely related response patterns. The second and the sixth positioned items and the third and fifth positioned items usually have closely related response patterns. Finally the forth positioned item does not have a matched response pattern but will often closely resemble the other middle position response patterns. 

 

2. If you plotted item number on the x-axis and percent correct on the y-axis, what would the graph look like (assuming the errors follow the predicted pattern)?

 

The data plot would resemble a u-shaped function. The percent correct would be high for the first and last item positions and there would be a significant decrease in performance for the middle position items.

 

3. Imagine you’re completing a history assignment and one of the questions asks you to complete a timeline for the prominent historical events discussed in class. You know you have all the important events down, but your instructor tells you you’ve made one error. The good news is your instructor allows you to correct your error if you can find it. Where is the best place to look for your error? What type of errors should you keep an eye out for?

 

Using what we have learned from this demonstration one should look for their error in the middle positions of their timeline. Since you know that you have all of the important events themselves correct, you have likely confused one of the event dates. You should re-check your dates and keep your eye out for a position error in which you placed an event one position too early or one position too late on your timeline.

 

Discussion Question

 

1. Many people report that it is easier to recall the number sequences for the early trials of the experiment as compared to the trials that occur toward the end of the experiment. Why do you think this might be the case?

 

One reason for this might be fatigue. In the later trials of the experiment you may tire from the many repetitions of this task. Another reason for this could be proactive interference. The memory of letters from trials early in the experiment could be interfering with your ability to remember the letters for later trials of the experiment.

 

• Test Bank

 

Multiple Choice Questions

 

1. If you are shown a seven-item list in order and asked to recall the list items in order, typically what list item will you most commonly remember as being the item in the forth position.
2. The first list item
3. The third list item
4. The forth list item
5. The last list item

 

Answer: c.

 

2. In the position error demonstration, which of the following list positions is likely to be remembered best?
3. Second position
4. Forth position
5. Fifth position
6. Last position

 

Answer: d.

 

3. Suppose you were given the sequence of words dog, cat, fish, rabbit, and mouse then asked to repeat the sequence in the same order it was received. Using what you learned from the position error demonstration, which of the following word orders would you most likely give?
4. Dog, cat, rabbit, fish, mouse
5. Dog, cat, mouse, rabbit, fish
6. Fish, cat, dog, rabbit, mouse
7. Mouse, cat, fish, rabbit, dog

 

Answer: a.

 

4. What advantage does a position error analysis have over looking at one’s percent correct?
5. It tells you how many errors are being made
6. It tells you what types of errors are being made
7. It tells you why certain errors are being made
8. All of the above

 

Answer: b.

 

5. In the position error demonstration, the response pattern for the first item in similar to the response pattern for …
6. the second item on the list.
7. last item on the list.
8. the fourth item on the list.
9. all the items on the list.

 

Answer: b

 

 

True/False Question

 

1. ___ The errors that people make when the try to recall a list in its given order are random.

 

Answer: False

 

Short Answer Question

 

1. In the position error demonstration, which list positions are typically recalled the best? Which list positions are typically recalled the worst?

 

Recall performance is best for the first and last list positions. Recall performance is worst of the middle list positions.

 

Essay Question

 

1. In the position error demonstration, what information can you get from a participant’s position error graph that you cannot get from knowing their percent correct for each list position? Why is this information important? What are the most common errors people make in this demonstration?

 

This essay is worth 5 points.

Point 1:     Knowing a participant’s percent correct for each list position only tells you how often errors are made.

Point 2:     A participant’s position error graph tells you what types of errors a participant made.

Point 3:     It is important to know the types of errors participants make because there is a difference between remembering an item in the wrong position and not remembering the item at all.

Point 4:     One of the most common errors in the position error demonstration is remembering an item being one position earlier than it actually was.

Point 5:     Another common error is remembering an item one position later than it actually was.

 

– Irrelevant Speech Effect –

 

• Student Manual Answers

 

Basic Questions

 

1. In this demonstration, did you show the Irrelevant Speech Effect? Explain how you know.

 

A participant showed the Irrelevant Speech Effect if they remembered more letters from the list in the quiet condition than in the irrelevant speech condition.

 

2. How is visual information stored in working memory, and how might this explain the Irrelevant Speech Effect?

 

It is thought that visual information, like letters, numbers, and words, are translated into a phonological code which is stored in the same area that speech information is stored. Since the visual information and the speech information are stored in the same place interference could occur.

 

3. Irrelevant Speech is thought to impair one’s ability to recall list items and/or impair one’s ability to recall list items in the correct order. Based on your experience with this demonstration, which of these two hypotheses do you think is most accurate? Why?

 

Answers will vary. Participants might report that they could remember the list items but had trouble recreating their order, which would support the latter hypothesis, or they might report that they just could not remember the list items at all, which would support the former hypothesis.

 

Advanced Questions

 

1. You have an important exam tomorrow and your roommates ask you if they can have people over for a small party. They promise that you can have the whole upstairs to yourself so no one will bother you. Will this allow you to effectively study for your exam? Why or why not?

 

This situation will most likely not allow you to effectively study for your exam. The key issue in this situation is whether or not you will hear the noise (i.e. music and talking) from the party. We know from the findings related to this demonstration that irrelevant speech sounds can impair your ability to recall information, therefore if you will be able to hear any of the noise from the party, your studying will not be as effective as if it were quiet.

 

2. If you get a phone call while watching television, you always make a point to mute the television. You have always thought this allowed you to hear the person you were talking to more clearly. After having done this demonstration, can you think of another reason why muting the television allows you to communicate on the phone more effectively?

 

Muting the television does two things that might allow you to communicate more effectively on the phone. First, it eliminates the sounds from the television could distract you from listening to the person to whom you are talking. Second, by eliminating the speech from the television you are preventing interference between the television speech and the speech of the person to whom you are talking.

 

3. In this demonstration, if you were presented with auditory tones instead of irrelevant speech when being shown the sequence of numbers, do you think your recall performance would be improved, further impaired, or the same? Why?

 

Your performance would still be impaired but to a lesser extent than if you had been presented with irrelevant speech during the sequence of numbers. The tones could cause some memory impairment because they could distract your attention during the presentation of the numbers. Still, the tones would not cause as much impairment as the irrelevant speech would because the tones would not be stored phonologically and therefore would not interfere with the storage of the numbers in memory.

 

Discussion Question

 

1. How might attention play a role in the Irrelevant Speech Effect?

 

Attention is needed to fully process information. To remember a sequence of numbers a participant needs to attend to each of the numbers. Irrelevant speech may grab and/or divide a participant’s attention and therefore not allow the participant to process the number sequence to the level necessary for maximal performance. Attention is selective in that it is able to process certain information while ignoring other information. Attention does not seem to be able to completely ignore irrelevant speech in this context.

 

 

• Test Bank

 

Multiple Choice Questions

 

1. What type of speech can cause the Irrelevant Speech Effect?
2. Speech in your native language
3. Speech in a foreign language
4. Nonsense speech
5. All of the above

 

Answer: d.

 

2. What is the independent variable in the Irrelevant Speech Effect demonstration?
3. The presence or absence of irrelevant speech
4. The percentage of correctly recalled letters
5. The number of letters presented in the list
6. All of the above

 

Answer: a.

 

3. One explanation for the Irrelevant Speech Effect presented in the demonstration suggests that irrelevant speech …
4. is translated into visual information and then interferes with the visual presentation of the list.
5. makes the order of the list items difficult to remember.
6. activates memories associated with the speech sounds that are heard.
7. None of the above

 

Answer: b.

 

4. One explanation for the Irrelevant Speech Effect presented in the demonstration suggests that the visually presented items …
5. never enter short-term memory, but instead go directly to long-term memory.
6. end up being stored in the same part of memory that auditory information is stored.
7. are stored indefinitely in iconic memory until called upon.
8. None of the above

 

Answer: b.

 

5. You are watching a movie for your film class. Which of the following could be most detrimental to your ability to remember various details of the movie?
6. Listening to classical music
7. The noise from your dryer
8. Listening to your favorite rock station
9. All of the above would be equally detrimental

 

Answer: c.

 

True/False Question

 

1. ___ The Irrelevant Speech Effect can only be caused by speech that listener can understand.

 

Answer: False

 

Short Answer Question

 

1. What is the primary prediction of the Irrelevant Speech Effect demonstration?

 

Participant’s recall of list letters will be impaired in the irrelevant speech condition as compared to the quiet condition.

 

Essay Question

 

1. Describe the three explanations of the Irrelevant Speech Effect that are stated in the Irrelevant Speech Demonstration.

 

This essay is worth 6 points.

Points 1 and 2:     One explanation is that the visually presented list items are translated into the same code that speech information is coded in and held in the same memory store that speech information held in. This results in interference.

Points 3 and 4:     Another explanation is that the Irrelevant Speech makes remembering the order of the list items difficult because it distracts participants from the list.

Points 5 and 6:     The last explanation provided in the demonstration attributes the effect to a combination of an attentional component and an interference component.

 

 

– Phonological Similarity –

 

• Student Manual Answers

 

Basic Questions

 

1. In the phonological loop model, what is the phonological store?

 

The phonological store is part of memory that specifically holds speech information. The phonological store can only hold information for a short time if the information is not rehearsed.

 

2. What is the purpose of saying numbers aloud on half of the trials in this demonstration?

 

Saying the numbers aloud ties up the articulatory control process and prevents it from recoding the visual presentation of the letters to a phonological form.

 

3. Did you show the phonological similarity effect? Explain.

 

A participant shows the phonological similarity effect if they recalled a higher proportion of the dissimilar letters when they were presented quietly as compared to the similar letters when they presented quietly.

 

Advanced Questions

 

1. Would it be harder to recall the word sequence of house, mouse, and spouse or the word sequence house, cabin, and mansion? Why?

 

This question presents one list of words that are phonologically similar and one list of words that have related meanings. Using what we have learned from this demonstration, a list of words that sound similar are more difficult to remember than a list of words that do not sound similar.

 

2. In this demonstration, on half of the trials you were asked to count to four aloud over and over throughout the presentation of the sequence of letters. What other tasks could have taken the place of the counting task?

 

The task that takes the place of the counting task needs to be both verbal and vocalized. The task should be simple and it should not directly interfere with remembering the sequence of letters, so repeating a sequence of letters aloud would not be the best choice. Repeating aloud a list of three colors (blue, red, and green) or listing the cardinal directions (north, south, east, and west) over and over could adequately take the place of the counting task.

 

3. Using your trial-by-trial data, evaluate the types of errors you made on your first 10 trials. How many times did you fail to report a letter from the original list? How many times did you make an error in the order that you recalled the letters? Where did most of your errors occur (beginning, middle, or end of the list)?

 

Answers will vary. Typically participants will make most of their errors in the middle list positions and make fewer errors at the beginning and end list positions. The nature of the reporting process often results in more position errors than errors in failing to report a letter from the original list.

 

Discussion Question

 

1. In a demonstration similar to this one, do you think you would be more likely to report seeing an item not on the original list in the similar quiet condition or in the dissimilar quiet condition? Explain.

 

One would be more likely to report seeing an item not on the original list in the similar quiet condition as opposed to the dissimilar quiet condition. In the similar condition you are given a lot of phonological repetition and this might cause a false memory of hearing a letter not actually on the list just because it sounds like the letters on the list. There is not a phonological pattern in the dissimilar list, so one is less likely to create a false memory for it.

 

Multiple Choice Questions

 

1. The phonological similarity effect is often observed when trying to remember a list of items that …
2. are look the same.
3. are presented close to one another in time.
4. sound alike.
5. None of the above

 

Answer: c.

 

2. In the phonological similarity effect demonstration, on some trials participants are asked to say “one, two, three, four” over and over again out loud during the presentation of the list items. What was the purpose of counting to four out loud?
3. To keep the participant’s articulatory control process busy
4. To prime the participant’s phonological store for verbal information
5. To fill up the participant’s phonological store with verbal information
6. None of the above

 

Answer: a.

 

3. Which of the following visually presented sequences of letters would be easiest to remember?
4. c, f, j, l, r, and u
5. b, e, g, p, and t
6. b, e, g, p, and t, but the sequence was given while engaging in articulatory suppression
7. None of the above

 

Answer: a

4. Which of the following is a prediction of the phonological similarity effect demonstration?
5. Your recall performance for the dissimilar letters should be worse than when you did not engage in articulatory suppression
6. Your recall performance for the similar letters should be worse than when you did not engage in articulatory suppression
7. Your recall performance for the dissimilar and similar letters should be similar
8. All of the above

 

Answer: d.

 

5. What is the purpose of the phonological store in the phonological loop model?
6. To store visual information
7. To store speech-based information
8. To store all sound-based information
9. All of the above

 

Answer: b.

 

True/False Question

 

1. ___ The phonological similarity effect can occur when the list of items that needs to be recalled is read silently.

 

Answer: True

 

Short Answer Question

 

1. According to the phonological loop model, how can you prevent the phonological similarity effect when given a list of similarly sounding items?

 

You need to keep the articulatory control process busy with another task. One option would be the task used in the Phonological Similarity Effect demonstration, articulatory suppression.

 

Essay Question

 

1. Describe Baddeley’s (1986) phonological loop and how it relates to the phonological similarity effect?

 

This essay is worth 6 points

Point 1:     The phonological loop consists of the phonological store and the articulatory control process.

Point 2:     The phonological store holds speech information. Information in the phonological store quickly fades away if it is not rehearsed.

Point 3:     The articulatory control process rehearses information held in the phonological store to prevent it from fading away and it translates visual information into speech information.

Point 4:     A person is usually worse at recalling a list of items (letters or words) that sound similarly than a list of items sound differently, even when the list of items is presented visually. This impairment for similar sounding items is the Phonological Similarity Effect.

Point5:      Items that are heard are automatically held in the phonological store. Items that are seen are translated into speech information and then held in the phonological store. Point 6: In the phonological store, items that sound similar are easily confused and therefore more difficult to remember.

 

– Levels of Processing –

 

• Student Manual Answers

 

Basic Questions

 

1. In this demonstration, how are you asked to evaluate words to induce a shallow level of processing? How are you asked to evaluate words to induce a deep level of processing?

 

To induce a shallow level of processing, participants are asked to determine if a word has a particular pattern of consonants and vowels. To induce a deep level of processing participants are asked to decide if a word has a similar meaning to another word.

 

2. What is incidental learning? How do researchers typically study incidental learning?

 

Incidental learning is learning that takes place without the intent of the learner. Researchers typically study incidental learning by having individuals complete a specified task without the knowledge that they will be tested on some aspect of the task at a later time.

 

3. Was your recall performance affected by your level of processing at study? Explain.

 

Answers will vary. A participant was affected by their level of processing at study if their proportion correct for the letter recognition condition, rhyme recognition condition, and synonym recognition condition were significantly different.

 

Advanced Questions

 

1. A friend reads you a phone number to put in your cell phone’s phonebook. Approximately how long do you have to put this number into your phonebook before you forget it?

 

The phone number will be acoustic and put in a short term store. Information in your short term store is only available for approximately twenty to thirty seconds.

 

2. Suppose you slept in on Saturday, read a book, drove to your parents’ house, made your parents dinner, ate, drove home, and went to bed. On Monday, according to levels of processing theory, are you more likely to remember if you were stopped by a traffic light on your way to your parents’ house or what you had for dinner? Why?

 

Assuming there was nothing unusual about your experience with the traffic light, you are more likely to remember what you had for dinner. You made dinner yourself, so you had to think about all of the ingredients you needed and how everything had to be put together to create the meal. These steps caused a deep level of processing regarding what you had for dinner, and consequently you are more likely to remember it than simply stopping your car at a stop light.

 

3. What methods, other than the one used in this demonstration, could be used to induce a deep level of processing for a given word?

 

There are many responses that would be suitable for this question. What is important is that the method makes the participant think about the meaning of the word. For example, asking someone to think about the word in relation to a personal experience could result in a deep level of processing. Having the subject visualize the word using an unusual mental image could also result in a deep level of processing.

 

Discussion Question

 

1. Describe a situation in which a shallow level of processing might be preferred over a deeper level of processing.

 

A shallow level of processing can lead to better recall if the test conditions are similar to the encoding conditions. For instance, if an individual is going to be tested on a list of words at a shallow level (given rhyming words), then they are better off studying the words at a shallow level (rhyming) as opposed to at a deeper level (meaning of the words).

 

• Test Bank

 

Multiple Choice Questions

 

1. Using the processing view, how would you encode something that you want to remember for a long time?
2. By using a literal copy
3. Acoustically
4. Semantically
5. Both a. and b.

 

Answer: c.

 

2. According to the predictions of the levels of processing demonstration which of the following processing strategies should result in the best recall?
3. deciding if a word has a particular pattern of consonants and vowels
4. deciding if a word rhymes with another given word
5. deciding if a word has similar meaning to another given word
6. All should result in similar recall performance

 

Answer: c.

 

3. According to the levels of processing view, rehearsal …
4. is more important than the level of processing
5. is not as important as the level of processing.
6. is only important for shallow levels of processing.
7. is only important for deeper levels of processing.

 

Answer: b.

 

4. If you are given an important password that you need to remember later, what should you try to do?
5. Think about the meaning of the word
6. Think about how the word sounds
7. Think about what the word looks like
8. All should result in similar recall performance

 

Answer: a.

 

5. Why do levels of processing experiments use incidental learning?
6. To make sure participants are trying to learn the material they are supposed to
7. To prevent participants from engaging in a level of processing different from the one they are asked to engage in
8. To see what level of processing participants engage in
9. To allow participants to engage in any level of processing they see fit

 

Answer: b.

 

True/False Question

 

1. ___ All else being equal, the shallower the level of processing a person uses to learn something the more likely that person is going to be able to remember it later.

 

Answer: False

 

Short Answer Question

 

1. What is the difference between incidental learning and intentional learning?

 

Intentional learning happens when the learner processes information with the goal of retaining it. Incidental learning occurs without effort from the learner to retain the material of interest. Incidental learning often occurs through exposure to the material.

 

Essay Question

 

1. In the processing view, what are the three ways information can be encoded? For each of these encoding formats, identify its storage capacity and how long information can be held.

 

This essay is worth 7 points.

Point 1:                 Information can be encoded in a literal copy, acoustically, or semantically.

Points 2 and 3:     Information that is encoded using a literal copy is only held for a very short amount of time, less than one second. Only a limited number of items can be stored as a literal copy at a given time.

Points 4 and 5:     Information that is encoded acoustically can only be held for up to 30 seconds and very few items can be held at one time.

Points 6 and 7:     Information that is encoded semantically can be held for a very long time and there is no limit to the number of items that can be held at once.

 

 

 

 

 

 

Useful Websites

 

Aging and Cognition Unit (formerly the Amnesia and Cognition Unit)

http://amcog.web.arizona.edu/

This site, maintained by the amnesia research group at the University of Arizona, describes ongoing research dedicated to looking at the effects of aging and brain injury on memory function. A number of references to the research are also provided.  It also provides links to other sites that deal with memory and brain function.

 

Memory and Aging Research Center

http://www.npi.ucla.edu/memory/

The site provides a wealth of information on age-related memory loss and other cognitive functions, with a particularly thorough FAQ on Alzheimer’s for the layperson. It also features a variety of useful links.

 

Memory Disorders Research Center

http://www.bu.edu/mdrc/publications.html

The site provides an extensive bibliography of memory-related articles as well as an overview of current research. Many of the articles are related to various memory disorders (e.g., amnesia, Alzheimer’s, brain lesions).

 

Human Memory Models

http://www.akri.org/cognition/hummod.htm

This site from the Applied Knowledge Research Institute briefly introduces the various issues for different types of memories (e.g., autobiographical, episodic, semantic, short term, long term, etc.).

 

Memory Models

http://memory.psych.mun.ca/models/models.shtml

This site provides links to a number of different mathematical memory models (e.g., MINERVA 2, SAM, TODAM …) which contain a description and a demonstration of the model.

 

Issues Related to Memory

http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/memory/

This website from the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy discusses various types of memory systems as well as discusses a number of issues related to memory (e.g., issues of representation, empirical evidence, philosophical issues)

 

Long-Term Working Memory

http://cogsci.soton.ac.uk/~harnad/Papers/Py104/ericsson.long.html

This article, by Ericsson and Kintsch (originally published in Psychological Review in 1995), presents a view of working memory in which it is divided into short-term working memory (ST-WM) and long-term working memory (LT-WM).

 

 

 

Models of Working Memory

http://cogweb.ucla.edu/Abstracts/Miyake_Shah_99.html

This site provides the abstracts from the various chapter in the book Models of Working Memory (edited by Miyake and Shah). The abstracts provide an overview of the various working memory models in addition to the emphasis of each and how the models differ.

 

 

Test Bank

 

Multiple Choice

 

1. __________ refers to the means by which people draw on past knowledge in order to use such knowledge in the present; it refers to the dynamic mechanisms associated with the retention and retrieval of information.
2. Implicit store
3. A network
4. Memory
5. Sensory store

ANS: c                                          DIF: Easy                    MSC: TYPE:  Factual

 

2. __________ refers to a process of memory often employed in memory tasks, in which the person is asked to produce a fact, a word, or other item from memory.
3. Recall
4. Recognition
5. Identification
6. Production

ANS: a                              DIF: Easy                    MSC: TYPE:  Factual                         NOT: WWW

 

3. __________ refers to a process of memory often employed in memory tasks, in which the person may be asked to identify from among several choices a fact, a word, or other item from memory.
4. Recall
5. Recognition
6. Retrieval
7. Assimilation

ANS: b                              DIF: Easy                    MSC: TYPE:  Factual                         NOT: WWW

 

4. Fill-in-the-blank tests can be memory tasks, which require that students employ primarily the memory process of
5. recall.
6. recognition.
7. access.
8. production.

ANS: a.                                         DIF: Easy                    MSC: TYPE:  Application

 

5. Multiple-choice exams can be memory tasks, which require that students employ primarily the memory process of
6. recall.
7. recognition.
8. access.
9. production.

ANS: b                                          DIF: Easy                    MSC: TYPE:  Application

 

6. __________ recall refers to a type of recall task used in experiments in which the participant recalls items in the exact order in which they were presented.
7. Ordered
8. Serial
9. Ordinal
10. Free

ANS: b                                          DIF: Easy                    MSC: TYPE:  Factual

 

7. __________ recall refers to a type of recall task used in experiments in which the participant recalls items in any order he or she chooses.
8. Arbitrary
9. Serial
10. Disordered
11. Free

ANS: d                                          DIF: Easy                    MSC: TYPE:  Factual

 

8. __________ recall refers to a type of recall task used in experiments in which items are presented in pairs, and during recall, the participant is cued with one member of each pair and is asked to recall the mate of each cued item.
9. Serial
10. Free
11. Dyadic
12. Cued

ANS: d                                          DIF: Easy                    MSC: TYPE:  Factual

 

9. Max is a volunteer for a psychological experiment. He has been asked to listen carefully to a list of words. He has been instructed to try to remember as many of these words as possible in any order and to write them down after a signal. Max is participating in a __________ recall task.
10. serial-
11. free-
12. paired-associates
13. structured-

ANS: b                              DIF: Moderate                        MSC: TYPE:  Application

 

10. Melissa volunteered to participate in a psychological experiment. She has been instructed to listen carefully to a list of words, because later she will have to remember as many of these words as possible in the exact order in which they were presented. Melissa is participating in a __________ recall task.
11. serial-
12. free-
13. paired-associates
14. structured-

ANS: a                              DIF: Moderate                        MSC: TYPE:  Application

 

11. After a test, Jill identified and then learned the information that she had forgot for the test. She noted that there was a “saving” in that the information was learned faster the second time. Jill has discovered the concept of ____.
12. relearning
13. partial-report method
14. subsequent refinement
15. permastore

ANS: a                              DIF: Easy                    MSC: TYPE:  Application

 

12. Jacoby suggests that both implicit and explicit memory play a role in every response. His model is called
13. process-dissociation model.
14. memory synthesis model.
15. levels of processing model.
16. multi-store model of memory.

ANS: a                                                DIF: Hard                    MSC: TYPE:  Factual

 

13. __________ memory refers to a form of memory retrieval in which a person consciously acts to recall or recognize particular information.
14. Episodic
15. Semantic
16. Explicit
17. Implicit

ANS: c                                          DIF: Moderate                        MSC: TYPE:  Factual

 

14. __________ memory refers to a form of memory retrieval in which a person uses recalled or recognized information without consciously being aware of doing so.
15. Episodic
16. Semantic
17. Explicit
18. Implicit

ANS: d                                          DIF: Moderate                        MSC: TYPE:  Factual

 

15. Participants in an experiment read over a list of words. A second unrelated task (a filler task) is then completed. For the final task, participants rate letter strings as words or non-words. The results indicate that participants in general were faster at identifying words from the first list. This facilitation in response to those items from the first task is an example of
16.        priming.
17. synesthesia.
18. levels of processing.
19. phonological processing.

ANS: a                                    DIF: Moderate                        MSC: TYPE:  Application

 

 

16. Anytime we read, we unconsciously and effortlessly remember the meanings of particular words and even how to read. These are examples of everyday tasks that primarily involve __________ memory.
17. episodic
18. semantic
19. explicit
20. implicit

ANS: d                                          DIF: Moderate            MSC: TYPE:  Application NOT: WWW

 

17. Recall memory is to _____ as recognition memory is to _____.
18. receptive knowledge; expressive knowledge
19. implicit memory; explicit memory
20. expressive knowledge; receptive knowledge
21. explicit memory; implicit memory

ANS: c                                          DIF: Moderate                        MSC: TYPE:  Conceptual

 

18. Culture-relevant tests employ skills and knowledge that
19. are not relevant to the cultural experiences of the test-takers.
20. are relevant to the cultural experiences of the test-takers.
21. are fixed at birth.
22. can derive from any culture.

ANS: b                              DIF: Easy                    MSC: TYPE:  Factual             NOT: WWW

 

19. The design of test items __________ is not an example of a basic strategy for attempting to create culture-relevant tests.
20. based on content and procedures that are novel to almost anyone, regardless of cultural context,
21. based on content and procedures that are familiar to almost anyone, regardless of cultural context,
22. that can be translated into the cultural context of the test-takers, while taking into account the culture-based knowledge and skills of the test-takers,
23. that are translated from one language to another

ANS: d                              DIF: Moderate                        MSC: TYPE:  Factual

 

20. According to Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968), __________ is/are structures and __________ is/are the information stored in the structures.
21. network; nodes
22. nodes; network
23. stores; memory
24. memories; store

ANS: c                              DIF: Hard                    MSC: TYPE:  Conceptual

 

 

 

 

21. __________ refers to a concept that cannot be directly measured or observed but that may be used as a mental representation for understanding the workings of a psychological phenomenon.
22. Declarative knowledge
23. A node
24. A hypothetical construct
25. A prime

ANS: c.                             DIF: Moderate                        MSC: TYPE:  Factual

 

22. According to Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968), the __________ store refers to the memory store characterized as having the shortest duration for memory storage.
23. sensory
24. short-term
25. fleeting
26. episodic

ANS: a                              DIF: Easy                    MSC: TYPE:  Factual

 

23. The __________ store refers to a sensory register for the fleeting storage of discrete visual images, usually resembling whatever is being represented.
24. echoic
25. visual
26. episodic
27. iconic

ANS: d                                          DIF: Easy                    MSC: TYPE:  Factual

 

24. Louise put a light bulb on a lamp, turned it on, and looked at it directly. Immediately after that, she looked away and she could still “see” the bulb shining brightly. This visual persistence is an example of the type of information held in the __________ store.
25. echoic
26. visual
27. episodic
28. iconic

ANS: d                              DIF: Moderate                        MSC: TYPE:  Application

 

25. The initial discovery of the existence of the iconic store came from a Ph.D. dissertation by
26. Donald Norman.
27. Richard Shiffrin.
28. Richard Atkinson.
29. George Sperling.

ANS: d                                          DIF: Hard                    MSC: TYPE:  Factual

 

 

 

 

26. During his experiments studying iconic store, Sperling would flash an array of stimuli (e.g., letters and/or numbers) for approximately 50 milliseconds on a screen. Asked to recall all symbols presented would be an example of the
27. backward visual masking.
28. forward visual masking.
29. partial-report procedure.
30. whole-report procedure.

ANS: d                                          DIF: Moderate            MSC: TYPE:  Factual

 

27. During his experiments studying iconic store, Sperling would flash an array of stimuli (e.g., letters and/or numbers) for approximately 50 milliseconds on a screen. Asked to recall just the symbols presented on the third line would be an example of the
28. backward visual masking.
29. forward visual masking.
30. partial-report procedure.
31. whole-report procedure.

ANS: c                                                      DIF: Moderate                                    MSC: TYPE:  Factual

 

28. A second stimulus is presented shortly after the first item in the same location and “erases” the original stimulus. This is called
29. stimulus blocking.
30. synesthesia.
31. visuospatial sketchpad.
32. backward visual masking.

ANS: d                                          DIF: Moderate                        MSC: TYPE:  Factual

 

29. According to Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968), the __________ store refers to the memory store characterized as having a modest capacity (about seven items) for storing information and a duration for memory storage of only a few seconds.
30. sensory
31. short-term
32. fleeting
33. episodic

ANS: b                                          DIF: Easy                    MSC: TYPE:  Factual

 

30. As tested by a psychologist, the capacity of Jerry’s short-term store for a wide range of items appears to be 11 items. Jerry’s short-term memory capacity is
31. below average.
32. average.
33. above average.
34. Cannot be established on the basis of this limited information.

ANS: c                                          DIF: Moderate            MSC: TYPE:  Application                  NOT: WWW

 

 

 

 

31. The capacity of our immediate, short-term store for a wide range of items appears to be __________, plus or minus 2 items.
32. 5
33. 6
34. 7
35. 8

ANS: c                              DIF: Easy                    MSC: TYPE:  Factual

 

32. According to Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968), the __________ store refers to the memory store characterized as having the greatest capacity for storing information and the longest duration for memory storage.
33. secondary
34. short-term
35. long-term
36. lasting

ANS: c                                          DIF: Easy                    MSC: TYPE:  Factual             NOT: WWW

 

33. How long does unrehearsed material typically remain in the short-term store?
34. 1 second
35. 5 seconds
36. 30 seconds
37. 5 minutes

ANS: c                                          DIF: Moderate                        MSC: TYPE:  Factual

 

34. People’s names, where we keep things, and humorous incidents from our childhood are all examples of information held in our __________ store.
35. short-term
36. long-term
37. working
38. stable

ANS: b                              DIF: Moderate            MSC: TYPE:  Application

 

35. According to Bahrick, __________ refers to a very long-term storage of information. The information contained in this store may include, for example, knowledge of a foreign language and of mathematics acquired years or even decades earlier.
36. permanent store
37. permastore
38. longest-term store
39. infinite store

ANS: b                              DIF: Moderate                        MSC: TYPE:  Factual

 

 

 

 

36. The __________ refers to a way of looking at memory storage, which postulates that memory comprises a continuous dimension in which the depth to which information is encoded predicts the ease of retrieving an item.
37. levels-of-processing framework
38. working-memory framework
39. parallel-processing model
40. continuous-dimension model

ANS: a                                          DIF: Moderate                        MSC: TYPE:  Factual

 

37. According to the levels-of-processing framework, as originally proposed, if you were shown semantically related words (e.g., dog and animal), rhyming words (e.g., dog and log), as well as unrelated words, the words most easily recalled would be the
38. semantically related words.
39. words concretely connected.
40. unrelated words.
41. All words would be recalled about equally.

ANS: a                                          DIF: Moderate            MSC: TYPE:  Application

 

38. According to the levels-of-processing framework, the deeper the level of processing of information,
39. the more that recall of the information depends on other cognitive events.
40. the less that recall of the information depends on other cognitive events.
41. the lower the probability that the information will be retrieved.
42. the higher the probability that the information will be retrieved.

ANS: d                                          DIF: Moderate            MSC: TYPE:  Conceptual

 

39. Participants were asked to judge whether words describe them or not. Recall was highest for the items that described the individual. The setup of this experiment demonstrates
40. self induced schema (SIS).
41. personal word identification.
42. partial-report procedure.
43. self-reference effect.

ANS: d                                          DIF: Moderate            MSC: TYPE:  Application

 

40. __________ memory refers to a portion of memory that may be viewed as a specialized part of long-term memory, which holds only the most recently activated portion of long-term memory, and which moves these activated elements into and out of short-term memory.
41. Moving
42. Activated
43. Working
44. Utility

ANS: c                                          DIF: Hard                    MSC: TYPE:  Conceptual

 

 

41. This model of memory consists of four main elements: central executive, phonological loop, visuospatial sketchpad, and the episodic buffer (plus additional subsidiary slave systems). This model is known as
42. primary memory & secondary memory.
43. three-store model.
44. levels-of-processing framework.
45. working memory.

ANS: d                                    DIF: Moderate            MSC: TYPE:  Factual                                     NOT: WWW

 

42. This component of the working memory model is important for processing both spatial information and images.
43. central executive
44. episodic buffer
45. phonological loop
46. visuospatial sketchpad

ANS: d                                          DIF: Moderate            MSC: TYPE:  Factual

 

43. This part of the working memory model is well suited for handling verbal information and for rehearsing information.
44. central executive
45. episodic buffer
46. phonological loop
47. visuospatial sketchpad

ANS: c                                          DIF: Moderate            MSC: TYPE:  Factual

 

44. This component of the working memory model is responsible for coordinating attentional activities and regulating the flow of information.
45. central executive
46. episodic buffer
47. phonological loop
48. visuospatial sketchpad

ANS: a                                          DIF: Moderate            MSC: TYPE:  Factual

 

45. This part of the working memory model allows for an interface that can integrate different types of information from various systems.
46. central executive
47. episodic buffer
48. phonological loop
49. visuospatial sketchpad

ANS: b                                                      DIF: Moderate            MSC: TYPE:  Factual

 

 

 

 

 

46. Sophie’s working memory is having difficulty integrating information from its various parts so that the information makes sense to Sophie. What component is not properly functioning?
47. her visuospatial sketchpad
48. her phonological loop
49. her working memory
50. her episodic buffer

ANS: d                                          DIF: Moderate            MSC: TYPE:  Application

 

47. John participates in an experiment in which he is presented with letters on a screen. Every time he sees an “X” he is supposed to report the letter that appeared three letters earlier. This is an example of which type of task?
48. temporal order
49. retention-delay
50. n-back
51. serial

ANS: c                              DIF: Moderate            MSC:TYPE: Application

 

48. Verifying whether a sentence is true or not and having to remember the last word for each sentence is an example of testing _____ which is viewed as an important component in intelligence that is reflected by the ability to actively manipulate and maintain information.
49. working memory
50. componential analysis
51. choice reaction time
52. means-ends analysis

ANS: a                                    DIF: Moderate                        MSC: TYPE:  Factual

 

49. The difference between semantic and episodic knowledge is that
50. semantic knowledge includes all “general truths,” whereas episodic knowledge must be gained from experience.
51. semantic knowledge must be gained from experience, whereas episodic knowledge includes all “general truths.”
52. semantic knowledge is what we know about experiences linked to particular time referents, whereas episodic knowledge is what we know in the way of facts.
53. semantic knowledge is what we know in the way of facts, whereas episodic knowledge is what we know about experiences linked to particular time referents.

ANS: d      REF: Semantic versus Episodic Memory                   DIF: Hard

MSC: TYPE:  Conceptual

 

50. __________ memory refers to encoding, storage, and retrieval of facts that do not describe the unique temporally coded experiences of the person recalling the facts.
51. Episodic
52. Semantic
53. Factual
54. Declarative

ANS: b                              DIF: Moderate                        MSC: TYPE:  Factual

 

51. __________ memory refers to encoding, storage, and retrieval of events that the one who is remembering experienced personally at a particular time and place.
52. Episodic
53. Semantic
54. Time-bound
55. Personal

ANS: a                                          DIF: Moderate                        MSC: TYPE:  Factual

 

52. According to Endel Tulving, if you needed to remember that you saw a friend yesterday at the library, you would be drawing on a(n) __________ memory.
53. episodic
54. semantic
55. time-bound
56. working

ANS: a                                          DIF: Moderate

MSC: TYPE:  Application

 

53. According to Endel Tulving, if you needed to remember the name of the friend that you saw yesterday at the library, you would be drawing on a(n) __________ memory.
54. episodic
55. semantic
56. time-bound
57. working

ANS: b                              DIF: Moderate                        MSC: TYPE:  Application

 

54. This model, based on neuroscientific results, suggests that episodic and semantic memories are in fact distinct from one another given that they activate different parts of the brain.
55. Hemispheric Specialization Model
56. Asymmetrical Hemispheric Specialization (AHS Model)
57. Hemispheric Encoding/Retrieval Asymmetry (HERA Model)
58. Intrahemispheric Activation Model

ANS: c                                          DIF: Hard                    MSC: TYPE:  Conceptual

 

55. As applied to a model of memory, a __________ is a set of labeled relations between nodes.
56. network
57. prime
58. schema
59. concept

ANS: a                                          DIF: Moderate                        MSC: TYPE:  Factual

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

56. This memory system is often called implicit memory and includes memory for how to do various tasks or operations.
57. nondeclarative memory
58. episodic memory
59. semantic memory
60. episodic buffer

ANS: a                              DIF: Moderate            MSC: TYPE:  Conceptual

 

57. The __________ refers to a conceptual model of memory in which the cognitive manipulation of multiple operations occurs simultaneously.
58. levels-of-processing framework
59. parallel-distributed processing model
60. three-store model
61. working-memory model

ANS: b                                          DIF: Moderate                        MSC: TYPE:  Factual

 

58. A __________ refers to a juncture within a memory network, which may be seen as representing a concept.
59. prime
60. node
61. schema
62. dyad

ANS: b                                          DIF: Moderate                        MSC: TYPE:  Factual

 

59. Many cognitive psychologists have asserted that the __________ effect refers to the activation of a node by a prime to which the node is connected in a network, due to the process of spreading activation.
60. activating
61. priming
62. recall
63. recognition

ANS: b                              DIF: Hard                    MSC: TYPE:  Conceptual

 

60. This model of memory, which consists of nodes and links between the nodes, suggests that knowledge is represented in the connections between the nodes.
61. Correspondence model of memory
62. HERA model of memory
63. Permastore
64. Connectionist model of memory

ANS: d                                                      DIF: Moderate                        MSC: TYPE:  Factual

 

 

 

 

 

 

61. A(n) __________ refers to a node that activates a connected node in a network.
62. schema
63. dyad
64. activating locus
65. prime

ANS: d                                          DIF: Moderate                        MSC: TYPE:  Factual

 

62. Debbie participated in a memory experiment and performed exceptionally well. When asked how she could recall long strings of material such as rows and columns of numbers, she said that she memorized numbers by transforming them into dates, and then thinking about what she had done that day. Debbie seems to be a
63. photographic thinker.
64. parallel processor.
65. mnemonist.
66. genius.

ANS: c                                          DIF: Easy                    MSC: TYPE:  Application

 

63. Allison is a peculiar thinker. She can remember a great amount of information, in large part because she converts sounds and words into visual impressions and because she experiences a word’s taste and weight. Allison seems to make use of
64. episensation.
65. metasensation.
66. synesthesia.
67. metaesthesia.

ANS: c                                          DIF: Moderate                        MSC: TYPE:  Application

 

64. __________ are persons who use memory-enhancing techniques for greatly improving their memory or who have a distinctive sensory or cognitive ability to remember information.
65. Mnemonists
66. Geniuses
67. Parallel-processors
68. Photographic thinkers

ANS: a                              DIF: Easy                    MSC: TYPE:  Factual             NOT: WWW

 

65. __________ refers to the experiencing of a sensation in a sensory modality different from the sense that is physically stimulated.
66. Episensation
67. Metasensation
68. Synesthesia
69. Metaesthesia

ANS: c                              DIF: Moderate                        MSC: TYPE:  Factual

 

 

 

 

66. This process involves using a number of different retrieval cues in order to retrieve memories that appear to have been forgotten.
67. hypermnesia
68. retroactive recall
69. proactive recall
70. double dissociations

ANS: a                                    DIF: Moderate                        MSC: TYPE:  Factual

 

67. __________ amnesia refers to an inability to recall events that occur after whatever trauma caused the memory loss.
68. Semantic
69. Infantile
70. Anterograde
71. Retrograde

ANS: c                                          DIF: Moderate                        MSC: TYPE:  Factual

 

68. __________ amnesia refers to an inability to recall events that occur before the trauma that causes the memory loss.
69. Semantic
70. Infantile
71. Anterograde
72. Retrograde

ANS: d                                          DIF: Moderate                        MSC: TYPE:  Factual

 

69. In retrograde amnesia, the memories that return typically do so starting
70. from the more distant past and progressing up to the time of the trauma.
71. from the time of the trauma and progressing back to the more distant past.
72. with the more meaningful experiences, regardless of their chronological time.
73. with the less meaningful experiences, regardless of their chronological time.

ANS: a                              DIF: Moderate            MSC: TYPE:  Conceptual

 

70. Retrograde amnesia may be viewed as a problem in __________ information in (from) memory.
71. encoding new
72. retrieving old
73. encoding and storing new
74. encoding and storing old

ANS: b                                          DIF: Moderate            MSC: TYPE:  Conceptual

 

71. __________ amnesia refers to the inability to recall events that happened during early development of the brain.
72. Developmental
73. Infantile
74. Anterograde
75. Retrograde

ANS: b                                          DIF: Easy                    MSC: TYPE:  Factual

72. __________ refers to the severe loss of explicit memory, usually affecting semantic memory more than procedural memory.
73. Aphasia
74. Dyslexia
75. Amnesia
76. Agnosia

ANS: c                                          DIF: Moderate                        MSC: TYPE:  Factual

 

73. __________ knowledge refers to the understanding and awareness of how to perform particular tasks or skills (i.e., “knowing how”).
74. Procedural
75. Declarative
76. Episodic
77. Semantic

ANS: a                                          DIF:  Easy                   MSC: TYPE:  Factual

 

74. Jimmy knows how to ride a bicycle. This is an example of a task that involves __________ knowledge.
75. procedural
76. declarative
77. episodic
78. semantic

ANS: a                  DIF: Easy                    MSC: TYPE:  Application      NOT: WWW

 

75. __________ memory refers to a discrete memory system for knowledge of how to perform particular tasks or skills.
76. Episodic
77. Semantic
78. Procedural
79. Declarative

ANS: c                              DIF: Easy                    MSC: TYPE:  Factual

 

76. __________ knowledge refers to a recognition and understanding of factual information (i.e., “knowing that”).
77. Procedural
78. Declarative
79. Episodic
80. Semantic

ANS: b                                          DIF: Easy                    MSC: TYPE:  Factual             NOT: WWW

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

77. Jennifer has an excellent understanding of geography. This is an example of __________ knowledge.
78. procedural
79. declarative
80. episodic
81. ecphoric

ANS: b                              DIF: Moderate            MSC: TYPE:  Application

 

78. Raphael is an amnesia patient. When specifically asked to remember a particular set of information, Raphael does poorly. When indirectly measured on the same information he shows signs of learning. This show that ____ is impaired by amnesia while ____ is not impaired.
79. implicit memory; explicit memory
80. recognition memory, recall memory
81. explicit memory; implicit memory
82. recall memory, recognition memory

ANS: c                                          DIF: Moderate                        MSC: TYPE:  Application

 

79. It is difficult to draw cause-and-effect statements from an interruption of function due to a lesion in a particular part of the brain since other parts of the brain may also be involved with that function. In evaluating hypotheses about neuropathologies, scientists look for ______ or different neuropathologies in which the individuals demonstrate an opposite pattern of deficits.
80. hypermnesia
81. intrahemispheric activation
82. paired-associates
83. double dissociations

ANS: d                                    DIF: Hard                    MSC: TYPE:  Conceptual

 

80. The only definitive test for Alzheimer’s disease involves
81. an analysis of brain tissue.
82. a memory test.
83. an fMRI.
84. a CT scan.

ANS: a                                          DIF: Easy                    MSC: TYPE:  Factual

 

81. The encoding of declarative information seems to depend primarily on the
82. basal ganglia.
83. hippocampus.
84. cerebellum.
85. peripheral nervous system.

ANS: b                              DIF: Hard                    MSC: TYPE:  Factual

 

 

 

 

82. The consolidation of encoded information in the long-term store seems to depend primarily on the
83. basal ganglia.
84. hippocampus.
85. cerebellum.
86. cerebral cortex.

ANS: b                              DIF: Hard                    MSC: TYPE:  Factual             NOT: WWW

 

83. A person who has suffered some sort of brain injury affecting only his or her hippocampus is most likely to show difficulty with
84. encoding of declarative information.
85. encoding of procedural information.
86. retrieval of semantic information.
87. retrieval of episodic information.

ANS: a                              DIF: Hard                    MSC: TYPE:  Factual

 

84. A person who has suffered some sort of brain injury affecting only his or her hippocampus is most likely to show difficulty with
85. the consolidation of encoded information in the long-term store.
86. encoding of procedural information.
87. retrieval of semantic information.
88. retrieval of episodic information.

ANS: a                              DIF: Hard                    MSC: TYPE:  Factual

 

85. The long-term storage of information, particularly declarative information, seems to depend primarily on the
86. basal ganglia.
87. amygdala.
88. cerebellum.
89. cerebral cortex.

ANS: d                              DIF: Moderate                        MSC: TYPE:  Factual

 

86. The memory of classically conditioned responses seems to depend primarily on the
87. basal ganglia.
88. hippocampus.
89. cerebellum.
90. cerebral cortex.

ANS: c                                                      DIF: Moderate            MSC: TYPE:  Factual

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

87. A person who has suffered some sort of brain injury, affecting only his or her cerebellum is most likely to show difficulty with
88. the consolidation of encoded information in the long-term store.
89. encoding of procedural information.
90. the memory of classically conditioned responses.
91. episodic information.

ANS: c                  DIF: Moderate                        MSC: TYPE:  Conceptual

 

88. Repeated stimulation of particular neural pathways tends to strengthen their likelihood of firing. This increased in activity is referred to as
89. long-term potentiation
90. neural strengthening
91. reinforcement
92. hypermnesia

ANS: a                              DIF: Easy                                MSC: TYPE:  Factual

 

 

Essay

 

1. Describe what implicit memory is.

ANS: Answer not provided

 

2. What role does the hippocampus play in memory?

ANS: Answer not provided

 

3. Describe the various parts of Baddeley’s model of working memory and their relationship to each other.

ANS: Answer not provided          NOT: WWW

 

4. Describe the whole-report and partial-report methods used by Sperling. Explain what Sperling thought the two reports have to say about sensory memory.

ANS: Answer not provided

 

5. Explain double dissociations and their relevance to understanding memory.

ANS: Answer not provided

 

6. Compare the sensory store, the short-term store, and the long-term store with each other and state the way in which they differ from one another.

ANS: Answer not provided

 

7. Compare and contrast the traditional model of memory (with its sensory, short-term, and long-term stores) with the levels-of-processing framework.

ANS: Answer not provided

 

 

 

8. Compare and contrast recall and recognition. Why does one task appear to be easier than the other? What processes are involved?

ANS: Answer not provided          NOT: WWW

 

9. First describe the various types of recall tasks, then explain what it says about memory when we can access information with some tasks but not others.

ANS: Answer not provided          NOT: WWW

 

10. Describe the different types of amnesia and explain how they are different from one another.

ANS: Answer not provided

 

11. Describe briefly procedural knowledge and declarative knowledge. Then describe the ways in which our lives would be different if all procedural knowledge decayed quickly if it were not maintained through rehearsal.

ANS: Answer not provided

 

12. Describe what the levels-of-processing memory model is and then design a study that would allow you to test a specific hypothesis stemming from the model.

ANS: Answer not provided

 

13. Pretend you are developing your own memory improvement book. What are some of the important facts that you would have to cover or include in your book?

ANS: Answer not provided          NOT: WWW

 

14. If you were developing an artificial life form, explain which model of memory you would base your design of the memory on and why (also include why you did not choose some of the other models).

ANS: Answer not provided

 

15. Technology in the past has provided new ways of looking at how we conceptualize memory. Generate a new metaphor for memory based on some type of technology. Make sure that you include in your discussion how the various components of memory relate to this technology.

ANS: Answer not provided

 

16. Suppose that a teacher seeks your advice regarding how to test his students in a way that (a) mainly involves recall processes; or (b) mainly involves recognition processes. Explain briefly what recall and recognition processes are and then state your recommendations to the teacher.

ANS: Answer not provided

 

17. Based on the research on mnemonists and on the self-reference effect, state at least two ways by which you can increase your recall of information when studying for an exam. Be specific and be sure to state the relationship between the research and your proposed study strategies.

ANS: Answer not provided

18. Suppose that someone asked your opinion about doing two tasks at once. What advice would you give them (think of Baddeley’s working memory model)? Under what circumstances would you have an easier or difficult time with two tasks?

ANS: Answer not provided          NOT: WWW

 

19. What advice would you give someone in terms of studying for two exams on one day? In your discussion relate the advice to various memory concepts including proactive and retroactive interference.

ANS: Answer not provided

 

20. Using the levels of processing model as your guide, what advice would you give someone in terms of studying and their ability to remember information.

ANS: Answer not provided