Essentials of Psychology Concepts And Applications International Edition 3rd Edition by Jeffrey S. Nevid – Test Bank

 

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Chapter 5

Learning

 

iDEA MODEL™ OF CoURSE ASsESSMENT:

 KEYING TEST ITEMS TO ACQUIRED SKILLS

 

 

Skills Assessed	Test Items
Identify . . . pioneering figures in psychology, parts of the nervous system, sensory receptors for various senses, types of personality tests, types of psychological disorders, methods of treatment, etc.	6, 7, 19, 40, 41, 42, 55, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 75, 79, 87, 89, 101, 102, 107, 128, 129, 134, 143
Define or Describe . . . key concepts of sensation and perception, consciousness, learning, memory, cognition, motivation and emotion, personality, social psychology, health psychology, models of abnormal behavior and psychotherapy, etc.	1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 27, 45, 53, 69, 74, 77, 81, 88, 90, 91, 99, 118, 119, 120, 121, 123, 124, 125, 126, 127, 129, 130, 131, 132, 134, 136, 140, 141
Evaluate or Explain . . . underlying processes and mechanisms of behavior and mental processes, research methods, theoretical concepts, etc.	18, 19, 26, 28, 29, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 47, 48, 50, 54, 56, 57, 58, 60, 61, 62, 63, 66, 80, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87, 93, 94, 98, 100, 102, 103, 104, 105, 106, 107, 108, 108, 112, 122, 133, 135, 137, 138
Apply. . . psychological concepts to real-life examples, including applications of psychological knowledge in daily life.	8, 16, 23, 27, 28, 29, 30, 33, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 43, 44, 46, 49, 51, 52, 59, 62, 63, 64, 76, 78, 82, 84, 85, 86, 92, 95, 96, 97, 100, 103, 104, 105, 106, 110, 111, 113, 114, 115, 116, 124, 125, 126, 130, 142, 143, 144, 145, 146, 147, 148

 

 

 

Learning Objectives

 

5.1             Define learning in psychological terms.

5.2             Describe classical conditioning and explain how conditioned responses are acquired.

5.3             Identify the key figure in the development of the principles of classical conditioning and describe this person’s contributions.

5.4             Explain how conditioned responses can be strengthened.

5.5             Apply a cognitive perspective to understanding classical conditioning.

5.6             Apply principles of classical conditioning to real-life examples.

5.7             Identify the major figures in the development of operant conditioning and describe their contributions.

5.8             Explain the differences between the types of reinforcement and schedules of reinforcement and between reinforcement and punishment.

5.9             Explain differences between escape learning and avoidance learning.

5.10           Apply principles of operant conditioning to real-life examples.

5.11           Define cognitive learning.

5.12           Describe several forms of cognitive learning.

5.13           Apply principles of cognitive learning to real-life examples.

 

 

 

MULTIPLE CHOICE

1. Most psychologists define learning as
2. A) any change in behavior.
3. B) any change in behavior due to maturation.
4. C) any change in behavior due to experience.
5. D) a relatively permanent change in behavior due to natural development.
6. E) a relatively permanent change in behavior due to experience.

ANS: E            REF: 163         MOD: Module 5-1 Classical Conditioning: Learning Through Association       MSC: factual           OBJ: 5.1                          KEY: Define/Describe

2. Which of the following best describes the nature of learning?
3. A) Learning is always adaptive. It involves enduring, but not necessarily permanent, changes in behavior.
4. B) Learning is always adaptive. It involves permanent changes in behavior.
5. C) Learning is adaptive in most cases. It involves enduring, but not necessarily permanent, changes in behavior.
6. D) Learning is adaptive in most cases. It involves permanent changes in behavior.
7. E) Learning is adaptive in most cases. It involves any type of change in behavior.

ANS: C            REF: 163         MOD: Module 5-1 Classical Conditioning: Learning Through Association       MSC: conceptual OBJ: 5.1                 KEY: Define/Describe

 

 

3. In psychology, learning is generally defined as
4. A) any change in behavior that is not a simple reflex.
5. B) changes in behavior that reflect maturation.
6. C) any adaptive change in behavior.
7. D) relatively permanent changes in behavior due to natural development.
8. E) relatively permanent changes in behavior due to experience.

ANS: E            REF: 163        MOD: Module 5-1 Classical Conditioning: Learning Through Association

MSC: factual            OBJ: 5.1                 KEY: Define/Describe      NOT: www

 

4. In psychology, learning is generally defined in terms of
5. A) any change in behavior resulting from experience.
6. B) any relatively permanent change in behavior resulting from experience.
7. C) any change in behavior resulting from maturation.
8. D) any permanent change in the organism’s behavior.
9. E) any relatively permanent change in behavior that helps the organism adjust to its environment.

ANS: B            REF: 163         MOD: Module 5-1 Classical Conditioning: Learning Through Association       MSC: factual           OBJ: 5.1                          KEY: Define/Describe

 

5. To psychologists, learning involves
6. A) any change in behavior that is not a simply reflex.
7. B) changes in behavior that reflect maturation.
8. C) any adaptive change in behavior.
9. D) relatively permanent changes in behavior due to natural development.
10. E) relatively permanent changes in behavior due to experience.

ANS: E            REF: 163         MOD: Module 5-1 Classical Conditioning: Learning Through Association

MSC: factual            OBJ: 5.1                KEY: Define/Describe

6. Who is most closely associated with classical conditioning?
7. A) L. Thorndike
8. B) Ivan Pavlov
9. C) John Garcia
10. D) F. Skinner
11. E) Robert Rescorla

ANS: B            REF: 164         MOD: Module 5-1 Classical Conditioning: Learning Through Association     MSC: factual           OBJ: 5.3         KEY: Identify

7. Ivan Pavlov’s initial research work was in the study of
8. A) learning by association with rabbits.
9. B) latent learning with rats.
10. C) observational learning with children.
11. D) digestive processes in dogs.
12. E) conditioning of pigeons.

ANS: D            REF: 164        MOD: Module 5-1 Classical Conditioning: Learning Through Association       MSC: factual              OBJ: 5.3                          KEY: Identify, Define/Describe

8. Marcel sat at a cafe eating the best croissant he had ever tasted. He begins frequenting the café to order the croissants. He hardly notices the jingling of the cash register just before the clerk hands him the croissant. Now every time he hears the same kind of jingling from another cash register, his mouth waters. Marcel’s learning is an example of
9. A) operant conditioning.
10. B) latent learning.
11. C) conditioned taste aversion.
12. D) classical conditioning.
13. E) observational learning.

ANS: D            REF: 164         MOD: Module 5-1 Classical Conditioning: Learning Through Association       MSC: applied                KEY: Apply

9. Learning in which a previously neutral stimulus becomes capable of triggering a reflexive response is called
10. A) operant conditioning.
11. B) classical conditioning.
12. C) instrumental conditioning.
13. D) stimulus-response learning.
14. E) spontaneous recovery.

ANS: B            REF: 165         MOD: Module 5-1 Classical Conditioning: Learning Through Association       MSC: factual              OBJ: 5.2       KEY: Define/Describe

10. Classical conditioning is best described as learning by
11. A) trial-and-error.
12. B)
13. C) stimulus-response.
14. D)
15. E)

ANS: B            REF: 164         MOD: Module 5-1 Classical Conditioning: Learning Through Association       MSC: conceptual OBJ: 5.2                 KEY: Define/Describe

11. To achieve classical conditioning, you should pair
12. A) a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus.
13. B) a conditioned stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus.
14. C) a neutral stimulus with a conditioned response.
15. D) a conditioned stimulus with a conditioned response.
16. E) an unconditioned stimulus with a conditioned response.

ANS: A            REF: 165        MOD: Module 5-1 Classical Conditioning: Learning Through Association       MSC: conceptual           OBJ: 5.2                          KEY: Define/Describe

12. A reflexive reaction triggered by a stimulus is a(n)
13. A) conditioned response.
14. B) unconditioned response.
15. C) unconditioned stimulus.
16. D) neutral response.
17. E) operant response.

ANS: B            REF: 165         MOD: Module 5-1 Classical Conditioning: Learning Through Association       MSC: factual              OBJ: 5.2       KEY: Define/Describe

13. In a typical classical conditioning experiment by Pavlov, a buzzer or tone serves as a(n)
14. A) neutral stimulus that is paired with a conditioned response.
15. B) conditioned stimulus that becomes a neutral stimulus through the process of association.
16. C) unconditioned stimulus that becomes a conditioned stimulus.
17. D) neutral stimulus that becomes an unconditioned stimulus.
18. E) neutral stimulus that becomes a conditioned stimulus.

ANS: E            REF: 165         MOD: Module 5-1 Classical Conditioning: Learning Through Association

MSC: conceptual     OBJ: 5.3                 KEY: Define/Describe

14. Pavlov found that the strength of a conditioned response increased with the number of pairings of the
15. A) CR and UR.
16. B) CS and US.
17. C) CS and CR.
18. D) CS and UR.
19. E) CR and US.

ANS: B            REF: 165        MOD: Module 5-1 Classical Conditioning: Learning Through Association       MSC: factual           OBJ: 5.3                          KEY: Define/Describe

15. In Pavlov’s studies of classical conditioning, the unconditioned stimulus was one that caused
16. A) an unexpected response.
17. B) a controlled response.
18. C) an unlearned response or reflex.
19. D) a conditioned response or reflex.
20. E) a neutral response.

ANS: C            REF: 165         MOD: Module 5-1 Classical Conditioning: Learning Through Association       MSC: factual           OBJ: 5.3                          KEY: Define/Describe

16. Dr. Emmanuel demonstrates a typical Pavlovian conditioning experiment for his psychology class. Emmanuel pairs a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus and then asks the class, “What is the neutral stimulus called now?” The correct answer is
17. A) conditioned response.
18. B) conditioned stimulus.
19. C)
20. D) conditioned reinforcer.
21. E) unconditioned response.

ANS: B            REF: 165         MOD: Module 5-1 Classical Conditioning: Learning Through Association       MSC: applied            OBJ: 5.3          KEY: Apply, Define/Describe

17. A puff of air to the eye causes a reflexive blink. If you precede the puff of air with a buzzer, eventually the buzzer will cause a blink. In this example, the puff of air is called the
18. A) unconditioned stimulus.
19. B) conditioned stimulus.
20. C) neutral stimulus.
21. D) unconditioned response.
22. E) conditioned response.

ANS: A            REF: 165         MOD: Module 5-1 Classical Conditioning: Learning Through Association       MSC: applied           OBJ: 5.2                          KEY: Define/Describe

18. Which pattern best describes what happens once classical conditioning occurs?
19. A) UR elicits the US.
20. B) CS elicits the CR.
21. C) NS leads to no response.
22. D) NS + US leads to UR.
23. E) US + CS leads to UR.

ANS: B            REF: 165         MOD: Module 5-1 Classical Conditioning: Learning Through Association       MSC: conceptual KEY: Evaluate/Explain

19. A puff of air to the eye causes a reflexive blink. If you precede the puff of air with a buzzer, eventually the buzzer will cause a blink. In this example, the buzzer begins as the _____ and eventually becomes the ______.
20. A) neutral stimulus; conditioned stimulus
21. B) conditioned stimulus; neutral stimulus
22. C) unconditioned stimulus; conditioned stimulus
23. D) neutral stimulus; unconditioned stimulus
24. E) unconditioned stimulus; neutral stimulus

ANS: A            REF: 165         MOD: Module 5-1 Classical Conditioning: Learning Through Association       MSC: applied           OBJ: 5.2         KEY: Identify, Evaluate/Explain          NOT: www

20. In classical conditioning, a conditioned response can weaken and eventually disappear. This is referred to as
21. A) spontaneous recovery.
22. B)
23. C)
24. D)
25. E)

ANS: E            REF: 165         MOD: Module 5-1 Classical Conditioning: Learning Through Association       MSC: factual           OBJ: 5.2                          KEY: Define/Describe

21. Which of the following is the best definition of spontaneous recovery?
22. A) the weakening and disappearance of a conditioned response over time
23. B) displaying a conditioned response to stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus
24. C) displaying a conditioned response to new neutral stimuli
25. D) displaying a conditioned response in the absence of the conditioned stimulus
26. E) return of a conditioned response following extinction

ANS: E            REF: 166         MOD: Module 5-1 Classical Conditioning: Learning Through Association

MSC: factual            KEY: Define/Describe

22. Following _____, a conditioned response may reappear. This process is known as ______.
23. A) generalization; spontaneous recovery
24. B) discrimination; extinction
25. C) extinction; spontaneous recovery
26. D) discrimination; spontaneous recovery
27. E) generalization; extinction

ANS: C            REF: 166         MOD: Module 5-1 Classical Conditioning: Learning Through Association       MSC: factual           OBJ: 5.2                          KEY: Define/Describe                 NOT: www

23. Following his experience in the military, Hans developed a classically conditioned fear response to radio static. After he left the military, the response extinguished. However, after not hearing radio static for several months, Hans again shows the conditioned fear response. Hans’s experience is best described by
24. A) stimulus generalization.
25. B) stimulus discrimination.
26. C)
27. D) spontaneous recovery.
28. E)

ANS: D            REF: 166         MOD: Module 5-1 Classical Conditioning: Learning Through Association

MSC: applied            OBJ: 5.2                 KEY: Apply,  Define/Describe

24. Following extinction, a conditioned response can be learned again more quickly than it was learned originally. This process is called
25. A) spontaneous recovery.
26. B)
27. C)
28. D)
29. E)

ANS: D            REF: 166         MOD: Module 5-1 Classical Conditioning: Learning Through Association

MSC: factual            OBJ: 5.2                 KEY: Define/Describe

25. Stimulus generalization occurs when
26. A) the conditioned response reappears after extinction.
27. B) the conditioned response is displayed following exposure to stimuli that resemble the conditioned stimulus.
28. C) the conditioned response is not displayed following presentation of the conditioned stimulus.
29. D) the conditioned stimulus elicits responses that are generally like the conditioned response.
30. E) the conditioned stimulus generalizes to other settings.

ANS: B            REF: 166         MOD: Module 5-1 Classical Conditioning: Learning Through Association

MSC: factual            OBJ: 5.2                 KEY: Define/Describe

26. Regarding classical conditioning, which of the following statements is FALSE?
27. A) Stimulus generalization helps explain the development of phobias.
28. B) In extinction, conditioned responses gradually weaken and disappear.
29. C) By learning to differentiate among related stimuli, animals are able to distinguish between threatening and nonthreatening situations.
30. D) Stimulus generalization has survival value because it allows animals to generalize learned responses to originally threatening stimuli.
31. E) Extinguished responses are forgotten if they are not reinforced.

ANS: E            REF: 166-167          MOD: Module 5-1 Classical Conditioning: Learning Through Association       MSC: conceptual KEY: Evaluate/Explain

27. Through classical conditioning, Alyce has developed a fear of mice. She also shows a fear response to gerbils and hamsters. Alyce is demonstrating
28. A) stimulus generalization.
29. B) stimulus discrimination.
30. C) spontaneous recovery.
31. D)
32. E)

ANS: A            REF: 166         MOD: Module 5-1 Classical Conditioning: Learning Through Association       MSC: applied           OBJ: 5.2                          KEY: Apply, Define/Describe

 

28. LaGina walks into a room and feels as if she has been there before, even though she knows that she has not. LaGina’s experience of deja vu may be explained by which concept from classical conditioning?
29. A) Extinction
30. B) Stimulus generalization
31. C) Stimulus discrimination
32. D) Spontaneous recovery
33. E) Reconditioning

ANS: B            REF: 1687        MOD: Module 5-1 Classical Conditioning: Learning Through Association       MSC: applied                     OBJ: 5.2                KEY: Apply, Evaluate/Explain

29. In an example reported in your text, a man was trapped behind a refrigerator and nearly suffocated. Subsequently, he has a phobia of tight, enclosed spaces and is afraid to ride on small, crowded elevators. However, he has no fear of large, uncrowded elevator rides. The man’s fear of small elevators is an example of ______, and his lack of fear toward large elevators is an example of _______.
30. A) reconditioning; extinction
31. B) stimulus generalization; extinction
32. C) stimulus generalization; stimulus discrimination
33. D) stimulus discrimination; extinction
34. E) stimulus discrimination; stimulus generalization

ANS: C            REF: 1687        MOD: Module 5-1 Classical Conditioning: Learning Through Association       MSC: conceptual OBJ: 5.2                KEY: Apply, Evaluate/Explain

30. Through classical conditioning, Eduardo has developed a fear of dogs. However, he only fears large, longhaired dogs but not small, longhaired dogs or large, shorthaired dogs. Eduardo is demonstrating
31. A) spontaneous recovery.
32. B) stimulus discrimination.
33. C) stimulus generalization.
34. D) latent learning.
35. E)

ANS: B            REF: 167        MOD: Module 5-1 Classical Conditioning: Learning Through Association

MSC: applied            KEY: Apply

31. Increasing the number of pairings of the US and CS will
32. A) weaken the CR.
33. B) strengthen the CR.
34. C) weaken the CR at first, and then strengthen it.
35. D) strengthen the CR at first, and then weaken it.
36. E) have no effect on the CR.

ANS: B            REF: 167        MOD: Module 5-1 Classical Conditioning: Learning Through Association       MSC: conceptual           OBJ: 5.4                          KEY: Evaluate/Explain

32. Regarding the timing of the CS and the US in classical conditioning, the STRONGEST conditioned response occurs when the
33. A) CS and US are presented simultaneously.
34. B) CS is presented first and remains on during the presentation of the US.
35. C) CS is presented first and is terminated before the presentation of the US.
36. D) US is presented first and is terminated before the presentation of the CS.
37. E) US is presented first and remains on during the presentation of the CS.

ANS: B            REF: 167-168         MOD: Module 5-1 Classical  Conditioning: Learning Through Association       MSC: conceptual OBJ: 5.4                 KEY: Evaluate/Explain

33. In the past three psychology labs, Liliya has been attempting to classically condition a lab rat. Her strategy has been to present the US and CS simultaneously. Which of the following should she do to strengthen the conditioned response of the rat?
34. A) Make less frequent pairings of CS and US.
35. B) Present the CS first and have it remain present during presentation of US.
36. C) Present the US prior to CS.
37. D) Present the CS first and withdraw it before introducing the US.
38. E) Decrease the intensity of the US.

ANS: B            REF: 167-168         MOD: Module 5-1 Classical Conditioning: Learning Through Association      MSC: applied        OBJ: 5.4                 KEY: Apply,        Evaluate/Explain

34. Regarding characteristics that influence conditioned responses, which of the following statements is FALSE?
35. A) In general, the more often the CS is paired with the US, the stronger the CR.
36. B) In general, the more often the CS is paired with the US, the more reliable the CR.
37. C) The strongest conditioned responses occur when the CS is presented first and remains present throughout the administration of the US.
38. D) A stronger US will typically lead to faster conditioning than a weaker one.
39. E) A single pairing of the CS and US cannot result in classical conditioning.

ANS: E            REF: 167-168                MOD: Module 5-1 Classical Conditioning: Learning Through Association       MSC: factual                        OBJ: 5.4                 KEY: Evaluate/Explain

35. Rescorla’s applies a cognitive perspective in explaining classical conditioning. He focuses on the extent to which the CS __________ the US.
36. A) interferes with
37. B) predicts
38. C) follows
39. D) reduces
40. E) is elicited by

ANS: B            REF: 168        MOD: Module 5-1 Classical Conditioning: Learning Through Association       MSC: conceptual           OBJ: 5.5                          KEY: Apply, Evaluate/Explain     NOT: www

36. In applying a cognitive perspective to explaining classical conditioning, a psychologist would emphasize the extent to which the CS __________ the US.
37. A) interferes with
38. B) predicts
39. C) follows
40. D) reduces
41. E) is elicited by

ANS: B            REF: 168        MOD: Module 5-1 Classical Conditioning: Learning Through Association       MSC: conceptual           OBJ: 5.5                          KEY: Apply, Evaluate/Explain

37. Which of the following psychologists is most likely to apply a cognitive perspective to research on classical conditioning.
38. A) Amir, who believes that the stronger the CS, the stronger the CR.
39. B) Harding, who believes the frequency of the pairings of the CS and US are the most important factor explaining strength of the CR.
40. C) Rivers, who believes that conditioned stimuli are signals or cues organisms use to make predictions about the environment.
41. D) Smithers, who believes that reducing the interval between the CS and US will help strengthen the CR.
42. E) Runes, who believes that the ability to think or conceptualize is the key factor in explaining the strength of association between the CS and the CR.

ANS: C            REF: 167-168        MOD: Module 5-1 Classical Conditioning: Learning Through Association                   MSC: conceptual OBJ: 5.5                 KEY: Apply, Evaluate/Explain

38. Regarding Rescorla’s views on classical conditioning, which of the following statements is FALSE?
39. A) Rescorla believes that classical conditioning depends on how reliably the CS serves as a signal for indicating the occurrence of the US.
40. B) Rescorla believes that classical conditioning is the result of repeated pairings of NS and US.
41. C) Rescorla’s perspective on classical conditioning can be described as cognitive.
42. D) Rescorla suggests that the more reliably the CS signals the occurrence of the US, the stronger the conditioned response.
43. E) Rescorla believed that classical conditioning has important survival implications for animals.

ANS: B            REF: 168         MOD: Module 5-1 Classical Conditioning: Learning Through Association       MSC: factual           OBJ: 5.5                          KEY: Apply, Evaluate/Explain

 

39. Which of the following represents an application of a cognitive perspective on classical conditioning?
40. A) The organism uses the CS to make predictions about the occurrence of events in the environment.
41. B) The stronger the CS, the stronger the CR.
42. C) The stronger the CS, the greater the resistance to extinction.
43. D) The US holds information value the organism uses to know how to respond.
44. E) The US becomes a reliable signal for predicting the occurrence of the CS.

ANS: A            REF: 168        MOD: Module 5-1 Classical Conditioning: Learning Through Association       MSC: conceptual           OBJ: 5.5                          KEY: Apply, Evaluate/Explain

40. Who is most closely associated with the study of conditioned emotional reactions?
41. A) John Watson
42. B) Ivan Pavlov
43. C) John Garcia
44. D) F. Skinner
45. E) Robert Rescorla

ANS: A            REF: 169         MOD: Moduke 5-1 Classical Conditioning: Learning Through Association

MSC: factual             KEY: Identify

41. Watson investigated the classical conditioning of which type of responses?
42. A) anger
43. B) sadness
44. C) happiness
45. D) fear
46. E) sexual arousal

ANS: D            REF: 169         MOD: Module 5-1 Classical Conditioning: Learning Through Association       MSC: factual             KEY: Identify

42. What is Rosalie Rayner’s role in the history of psychology?
43. A) She was a student assistant who helped Pavlov with his experiments on classical conditioning in animals.
44. B) She was a colleague who helped Skinner with his experiments on operant conditioning in animals.
45. C) She developed a cognitive theory of classical conditioning.
46. D) She created the puzzle box used by Edward Thorndike.
47. E) She was a student assistant who helped Watson with his experiments on classical conditioning in humans.

ANS: E            REF: 169        MOD: Module 5-1 Classical Conditioning: Learning Through Association       MSC: factual            KEY: Identify                NOT: www

43. In Watson’s research with Little Albert, what was the CS?
44. A) a loud sound
45. B) a white rat
46. C) an electric shock
47. D) a spanking
48. E) the Santa Claus mask

ANS: B            REF: 169         MOD: Module 5-1 Classical Conditioning: Learning Through Association

MSC: factual             OBJ: 5.6 KEY: Apply

44. When two-year-old Clarice was playing in the basement, a large burst of thunder scared her at the same time she saw a spider. Now Clarice has a spider phobia. Clarice’s experience is an example of which type of learning?
45. A) Operant conditioning
46. B) Observational learning
47. C) Vicarious learning
48. D) Insight learning
49. E) Classical conditioning

ANS: E            REF: 170         MOD: Module 5-1 Classical Conditioning: Learning Through Association       MSC: applied           OBJ: 5.6          KEY: Apply

45. An acquired fear response is called
46. A) a conditioned emotional reaction.
47. B) a reconditioned phobia.
48. C) a higher-order conditioned response.
49. D) a discriminative response.
50. E) a form of superstitious behavior.

ANS: A            REF: 169         MOD: Module 5-1 Classical Conditioning: Learning Through Association       MSC: factual           KEY: Define/Describe

46. In Watson’s research with Little Albert, the rat began as the _____ and became the _____.
47. A) CR; CS
48. B) UR; US
49. C) NS; CS
50. D) NS; CR
51. E) CS; NS

ANS: C            REF: 169         MOD: Module 5-1 Classical Conditioning: Learning Through Association       MSC: conceptual  OBJ: 5.6               KEY: Apply

47. Under which condition would Watson’s experiments on classical conditioning be replicated today?
48. A) If the researchers obtained parental permission to expose the child to intense fear
49. B) If the researchers used methods to extinguish the fears after completing their experiments
50. C) If the researchers followed the children for several years to make sure they were not “damaged” from their participation in the experiment
51. D) If the researchers taught parents how to extinguish their children’s fears
52. E) The experiments would not be replicated even with the parents’ permission

ANS: E            REF: 169-170    MOD: Module 5-1 Classical Conditioning: Learning Through Association       MSC: conceptual KEY: Evaluate/Explain

48. In Watson’s research with Little Albert, crying and avoiding the rat began as the ____ and became the _____.
49. A) CS; CR
50. B) CR; CS
51. C) UR; CR
52. D) CR; UR
53. E) US; CR

ANS: C            REF: 169         MOD: Module 5-1 Classical Conditioning: Learning Through Association       MSC: conceptual  OBJ: 5.6               KEY: Evaluate/Explain

49. Although Little Albert was classically conditioned to fear a rat, he also began to fear dogs, rabbits, and a Santa Claus mask. This is an example of
50. A) spontaneous recovery.
51. B) stimulus generalization.
52. C) stimulus discrimination.
53. D)
54. E)

ANS: B            REF: 169         MOD: Module 5-1 Classical Conditioning: Learning Through Association       MSC: conceptual                 OBJ: 5.6                 KEY: Apply

50. Classical conditioning can explain the development of all of the following EXCEPT
51. A) aversions to particular foods.
52. B)
53. C) positive or negative emotions.
54. D) drug cravings during withdrawal.
55. E) complex, voluntary behaviors.

ANS: E            REF: 170-171         MOD: Module 5-1 Classical Conditioning: Learning Through Association                 MSC: factual        KEY: Evaluate/Explain

51. When Salina was a young girl, a dog viciously attacked her as she was walking along a white picket fence. Since then, she displays intense fear of white picket fences. Salina is demonstrating
52. A) a discriminative stimulus.
53. B) superstitious behavior.
54. C) stimulus discrimination.
55. D) a phobia.
56. E) spontaneous recovery.

ANS: D            REF: 170         MOD: Module 5-1 Classical Conditioning: Learning Through Association       MSC: applied             OBJ: 5.6                          KEY: Apply

52. Advertising makes use of classical conditioning. For example, a product is presented along with some naturally appealing stimulus (e.g., a physically attractive person). In this case, the product begins as the
53. A) unconditioned stimulus.
54. B) neutral stimulus.
55. C) conditioned stimulus.
56. D) unconditioned response.
57. E) conditioned response.

ANS: B            REF: 170         MOD: Module 5-1 Classical Conditioning: Learning Through Association       MSC: applied           OBJ: 5.6                          KEY: Apply

53. The systematic application of learning principles to help people overcome phobias is called ______ therapy.
54. A) aversion
55. B) cognitive
56. C) conditioning
57. D) behavior
58. E) reexposure

ANS: D            REF: 170         MOD: Module 5-1 Classical Conditioning: Learning Through Association

MSC: factual             KEY: Define/Describe

54. Behavior therapy has been found helpful in treating which of the following disorders?
55. A) phobias only
56. B) phobias and sexual dysfunctions only
57. C) phobias and addictive behaviors only
58. D) phobias and childhood behavior problems
59. E) phobias, sexual dysfunctions, addictive behaviors, and childhood behavior problems

ANS: E            REF: 170       MOD: Module 5-1 Classical Conditioning: Learning Through Association       MSC: factual             KEY: Evaluate/Explain

55. Which researcher is associated with the study of conditioned taste aversions?
56. A) John B. Watson
57. B) Ivan Pavlov
58. C) John Garcia
59. D) Robert Rescorla
60. E) Edward Thorndike

ANS: C            REF: 171         MOD: Module 5-1 Classical Conditioning: Learning Through Association

MSC: factual             KEY: Identify

56. A researcher finds that rats avoid drinking from bottles in a room in which they had received exposure to radiation that subsequently made them ill. This demonstrates
57. A) stimulus discrimination.
58. B) stimulus generalization.
59. C) conditioned taste aversion.
60. D) fixed interval schedule of reinforcement.
61. E) behavior therapy.

ANS: C            REF: 171         MOD: Module 5-1 Classical Conditioning: Learning Through Association       MSC: applied                KEY: Evaluate/Explain                                NOT: www

57. Regarding classical conditioning, which of the following statements is FALSE?
58. A) Immune system responses can be classically conditioned.
59. B) Drug cravings and taste aversions can be acquired through classical conditioning.
60. C) Feelings of nostalgia can be elicited by stimuli that were associated with pleasant experiences in the past.
61. D) Taste aversions can be acquired with a single pairing of a food or drink and a nausea-inducing stimulus.
62. E) While classical conditioning is effective in creating phobias, its principles are not particularly useful in therapy to address phobias.

ANS: E            REF: 171         MOD: Module 5-1 Classical Conditioning: Learning Through Association       MSC: factual             OBJ: 5.6                          KEY: Evaluate/Explain

58. The most surprising element in Garcia’s research on taste aversion was that
59. A) animals were sickened by radiation.
60. B) animals would avoid drinking water.
61. C) animals would drink even if they were sick.
62. D) conditioned taste aversion could be developed even when the CS occurred several hours before the US.
63. E) conditioned taste aversion could be developed only when the US immediately followed the CS.

ANS: D            REF: 171         MOD: Module 5-1 Classical Conditioning: Learning Through Association       MSC: conceptual KEY: Evaluate/Explain

59. Cassandra, a recovered alcoholic for 15 years, no longer has a physical addiction to alcohol. However, whenever she sees her old “drinking buddies,” she begins to have cravings for alcohol. Cassandra’s experience is an example of
60. A) insight learning.
61. B) operant conditioning.
62. C) classical conditioning.
63. D) observational learning.
64. E) negative reinforcement.

ANS: C            REF: 170         MOD: Module 5-1 Classical Conditioning: Learning Through Association       MSC: applied           OBJ: 5.6                          KEY: Apply

60. In Garcia’s research on taste aversions, what was the neutral stimulus?
61. A) radiation
62. B) taste of the water
63. C) nausea
64. D) electric shocks
65. E) taste of the food

ANS: B            REF: 171         MOD: Module 5-1 Classical Conditioning: Learning Through Association       MSC: factual            KEY: Evaluate/Explain

61. Researchers have been able to successfully condition immune system suppression by linking neutral stimuli with a(n)
62. A) electrical shock.
63. B) drug that induces nausea.
64. C) immune-suppressant drug.
65. D) previously conditioned response.
66. E) immune-suppressant drug and electrical shock.

ANS: C            REF: 172         MOD: Module 5-1 Classical Conditioning: Learning Through Association       MSC: factual           KEY: Evaluate/Explain

62. Regarding research on the classical conditioning of taste aversions, which of the following statements is FALSE?
63. A) Conditioning of taste aversions can be acquired on the basis of a single pairing of the flavor with a nausea-inducing substance.
64. B) Taste aversions can be acquired when the flavor is presented hours before the nausea-inducing substance.
65. C) Garcia and Koelling’s work on taste aversions was no surprise to their colleagues; the research turned out as expected.
66. D) Garcia has applied his research to solve real-world problems.
67. E) Conditioned taste aversions have survival benefits.

ANS: C            REF: 171         MOD: Module 5-1 Classical Conditioning: Learning Through Association

MSC: factual            OBJ: 5.6                 KEY: Apply, Evaluate/Explain

63. In an application of classical conditioning principles reported in the text, how were sheep ranchers able to protect their sheep from coyotes?
64. A) The sheep ranchers learned to shoot more accurately through reinforcement.
65. B) Live sheep were injected with a poison that would kill coyotes.
66. C) Sheep carcasses were injected with poison that would kill coyotes.
67. D) Sheep carcasses were injected with a poison that would sicken but not kill coyotes.
68. E) Sheep were classically conditioned to fear coyotes.

ANS: D            REF: 171         MOD: Module 5-1 Classical Conditioning: Learning Through Association       MSC: factual           OBJ: 5.6                          KEY: Apply, Evaluate/Explain

64. Pauline became ill after eating eggs contaminated with salmonella. She subsequently becomes nauseous whenever she sees eggs. This is an example of
65. A) conditioned taste aversion.
66. B) stimulus discrimination.
67. C) spontaneous recovery.
68. D) a phobia.
69. E) conditioned emotional reaction.

ANS: A            REF: 171         MOD: Module 5-1 Classical Conditioning: Learning Through Association

MSC: applied            OBJ: 5.6                 KEY: Apply          NOT: www

65. Behaviors that result in satisfying effects are strengthened and behaviors that result in discomfort are weakened. This statement is explained by
66. A) the Law of Effect.
67. B) classical conditioning.
68. C) latent learning.
69. D) radical behaviorism.
70. E) insight learning.

ANS: A            REF: 174         MOD: Module 5-2 Operant Conditioning:  Learning Through Consequences       MSC: conceptual KEY: Evaluate/Explain

66. The Law of Effect was proposed by
67. A)
68. B)
69. C)
70. D)
71. E)

ANS: C            REF: 174         MOD: Module 5-2 Operant Conditioning:  Learning Through Consequences       MSC: factual           OBJ: 5.7                          KEY: Identify

67. Thorndike used the ______ in studying animal learning.
68. A) Skinner box
69. B) token economy
70. C) programmed instruction computer
71. D) maze
72. E) puzzle box

ANS: E            REF: 174         MOD: Module 5-2 Operant Conditioning:  Learning Through Consequences       MSC: factual           OBJ: 5.7                          KEY: Identify

68. Modern psychologists refer to the first part of the Law of Effect as _____ and the second part as _____.
69. A) classical conditioning; operant conditioning
70. B) operant conditioning; classical conditioning
71. C) reinforcement; punishment
72. D) punishment; reinforcement
73. E) trial and error; latent learning

ANS: C            REF: 175         MOD: Module 5-2 Operant Conditioning:  Learning Through Consequences       MSC: factual           OBJ: 5.7          KEY: Identify, Define/Describe

69. To which area of human behavior was Thorndike particularly excited about applying principles of animal learning?
70. A) parenting
71. B) law enforcement
72. C) medicine
73. D) advertising
74. E) education

ANS: E            REF: 175         MOD: Module 5-2 Operant Conditioning:  Learning Through Consequences       MSC: factual           KEY: Identify

70. Which of the following pairings is correct?
71. A) Garcia — conditioned emotional response
72. B) Thorndike — schedules of reinforcement
73. C) Skinner — operant conditioning
74. D) Watson — classical conditioning of reflexes
75. E) Pavlov — classical conditioning of emotions

ANS: C            REF: 175         MOD: Module 5-2 Operant Conditioning:  Learning Through Consequences       MSC: factual           OBJ: 5.7                          KEY: Identify

71. Which view holds that behavior is completely determined by environmental and genetic influences?
72. A) the Law of Effect
73. B) radical behaviorism
74. C) behavior modification
75. D) programmed instruction
76. E) cognitive learning

ANS: B            REF: 175         MOD: Module 5-2 Operant Conditioning:  Learning Through Consequences       MSC: factual           OBJ: 5.7                          KEY: Identify

72. Thorndike is to _____ as Skinner is to _______.
73. A) classical conditioning; Law of Effect
74. B) classical conditioning; operant conditioning
75. C) operant conditioning; classical conditioning
76. D) Law of Effect; classical conditioning
77. E) Law of Effect; operant conditioning

ANS: E            REF: 174-175         MOD: Module 5-2 Operant Conditioning:  Learning Through Consequences             MSC: conceptual                 KEY: Identify

73. The process of learning in which the consequences of a response determine the probability that the response will be repeated is called
74. A) classical conditioning.
75. B) operant conditioning.
76. C) insight learning.
77. D) observational learning.
78. E) latent learning.

ANS: B            REF: 175         MOD: Module 5-2 Operant Conditioning:  Learning Through Consequences       MSC: factual           KEY: Define/Describe

74. Operant conditioning is also known as
75. A) classical conditioning.
76. B) vicarious learning.
77. C) observational learning.
78. D) instrumental learning.
79. E) cognitive learning

ANS: D            REF: 175         MOD: Module 5-2 Operant Conditioning:  Learning Through Consequences       MSC: factual           OBJ: 5.7                          KEY: Identify

75. Graduate student Charisse Goldberg conducted operant conditioning trials with a laboratory rat. Goldberg trained the animal to press a lever to earn a food pellet. The rat successfully learned to press the lever. In the language of operant conditioning, what is the animal’s learned response called?
76. A) a higher-order conditioned response
77. B) a vicariously learned response
78. C) a reconditioned response
79. D) a latent response
80. E) an operant response

ANS: E            REF: 175         MOD: Module 5-2 Operant Conditioning:  Learning Through Consequences       MSC: applied           KEY: Apply

76. Which of the following is the best definition of reinforcer?
77. A) a response that operates on the environment to produce certain consequences
78. B) a stimulus or event that increases the probability that the response it follows will be repeated
79. C) behavior acquired through coincidental association of a response and a reinforcement
80. D) a cue that signals that reinforcement is available if the subject makes a particular response
81. E) the introduction of an aversive stimulus after a response occurs

ANS: B            REF: 176         MOD: Module 5-2 Operant Conditioning:  Learning Through Consequences       MSC: factual            KEY: Define/Describe

77. Your significant other gives you a compliment, and you smile at him/her. The probability that s/he will give you another compliment increases. This is an example of which type of learning?
78. A) Latent learning
79. B) Insight learning
80. C) Observational learning
81. D) Classical conditioning
82. E) Instrumental learning

ANS: E            REF: 175         MOD: Module 5-2 Operant Conditioning:  Learning Through Consequences       MSC: applied           KEY: Apply

78. Skinner found that coincidental association of a behavior and a reinforcement may result in
79. A)
80. B) superstitious behavior.
81. C) stimulus discrimination.
82. D) taste aversions.
83. E) the development of phobias.

ANS: B            REF: 176         MOD: Moduke 5-2 Operant Conditioning:  Learning Through Consequences       MSC: factual           OBJ: 5.7                          KEY: Identify

79. Regarding operant conditioning, which of the following statements is FALSE?
80. A) Positive reinforcement leads to strengthening of response, whereas negative reinforcement leads to weakening of response.
81. B) Discriminative stimuli set the stage for reinforcement.
82. C) Organisms are capable of learning complex behaviors through reinforcement of successive approximations to the desired behaviors.
83. D) Some reinforcers are rewarding because they satisfy basic biological needs, whereas others acquire reward value through experience.
84. E) Extinction is achieved by no longer reinforcing the desired response.

ANS: A       REF: 174-178        MOD: Module 5-2 Operant Conditioning:  Learning Through Consequences       MSC: factual           KEY: Evaluate/Explain                NOT: www

80. A discriminative stimulus signals that
81. A) reinforcement is available for a particular response.
82. B) an unconditioned stimulus is about to be presented.
83. C) a conditioned stimulus is about to be presented.
84. D) a neutral stimulus is about to be presented.
85. E) an approximately correct response will receive reinforcement.

ANS: A            REF: 178         MOD: Module 5-2 Operant Conditioning:  Learning Through Consequences       MSC: conceptual KEY: Describe

81. An “Open” sign in the window of a store that tells Ivan he can go in to purchase a beverage he finds particularly reinforcing. In this example, the sign serves as a
82. A) primary reinforcer.
83. B) discriminative stimulus.
84. C) conditioned reinforcer.
85. D) conditioned stimulus.
86. E) secondary reinforcer.

ANS: B            REF: 178         MOD: Module 5-2 Operant Conditioning:  Learning Through Consequences       MSC: applied            OBJ: 5.8                          KEY: Apply, Evaluate/Explain

82. Presentation of a rewarding stimulus serves as ______, while removal of an aversive stimulus serves as ______.
83. A) positive punishment; negative punishment
84. B) negative punishment; positive punishment
85. C) negative reinforcement; positive reinforcement
86. D) positive reinforcement; negative reinforcement
87. E) reinforcement; punishment

ANS: D            REF: 176-177         MOD: Module 5-2 Operant Conditioning:  Learning Through Consequences             MSC: conceptual                 OBJ: 5.8                 KEY: Evaluate/Explain

83. Which of the following is an example of negative reinforcement?
84. A) A mother picks up her infant when he cries, which then stops his crying, thereby reducing the mother’s level of annoyance.
85. B) A father picks up his infant when she cries, thereby increasing the likelihood that she will cry to be picked up again in the future.
86. C) A grandmother gives her granddaughter a “time out” when she misbehaves, thereby leading the granddaughter to calm down.
87. D) A grandfather gives his grandson $10 for every “A” on his report card, thereby strengthening his grandson’s study habits.
88. E) A caregiver removes a child from the “block play center” when he is throwing blocks, thereby causing him to cry.

ANS: A            REF: 177     MOD: Module 5-2 Operant Conditioning:  Learning Through Consequences       MSC: applied           OBJ: 5.8          KEY: Apply, Evaluate/Explain

84. Zorba gives his dog a treat for rolling over. Zorba explains this procedure as a form of
85. A) conditioned reinforcement.
86. B)
87. C) negative reinforcement.
88. D) positive reinforcement.
89. E) classical conditioning.

ANS: D            REF: 176         MOD: Module 5-2 Operant Conditioning:  Learning Through Consequences       MSC: applied           OBJ: 5.8          KEY: Apply, Evaluate/Explain

85. Velma takes headache medicine to relieve pain. The medicine serves to remove the pain. This is an example of
86. A) avoidance conditioning.
87. B) conditioned reinforcement.
88. C) positive reinforcement.
89. D) negative reinforcement.
90. E) superstitious behavior.

ANS: D            REF: 177      MOD: Module 5-2 Operant Conditioning:  Learning Through Consequences       MSC: applied               OBJ: 5. 8         KEY: Apply, Evaluate/Explain

86. Stimuli that are naturally reinforcing are referred to as ______, while stimuli that develop reinforcing properties through association are called ______.
87. A) indiscriminative stimuli; discriminative stimuli
88. B) primary reinforcers; secondary reinforcers
89. C) positive reinforcers; negative reinforcers
90. D) primary stimuli; secondary stimuli
91. E) shapers; successive approximators

ANS: B            REF: 177         MOD: Module 5-2 Operant Conditioning:  Learning Through Consequences       MSC: factual           OBJ: 5.8                          KEY: Identify, Evaluate/Explain

87. Primary reinforcers are
88. A) the first reinforcers an animal learns.
89. B) the most powerful reinforcers an animal learns.
90. C) intrinsically rewarding.
91. D) reinforcers that are learned through classical conditioning.
92. E) also called conditioned reinforcers.

ANS: C            REF: 177         MOD: Module 5-2 Operant Conditioning:  Learning Through Consequences       MSC: factual           KEY: Define/Describe

88. All but which of the following are primary reinforcers?
89. A) money
90. B) sexual stimulation
91. C) novel visual stimuli
92. D) air, food, and water
93. E) relief from pain

ANS: A            REF: 177         MOD: Module 5-2 Operant Conditioning:  Learning Through Consequences       MSC: conceptual KEY: Identify      NOT: www

89. Researchers use the method of successive approximations in the process of
90. A) insight learning.
91. B) higher-order conditioning.
92. C) conditioning taste aversions.
93. D)
94. E)

ANS: D            REF: 180         MOD: Module 5-2 Operant Conditioning:  Learning Through Consequences       MSC: factual           KEY: Define/Describe

 

90. William has noticed that every time his dog sits quietly by his chair, he tends to scratch the dog’s ears. As a result, the dog usually sits quietly by William’s chair any time William sits in the chair. This is an example of
91. A) positive reinforcement.
92. B) negative reinforcement.
93. C) escape learning.
94. D) positive punishment.
95. E) negative punishment.

ANS: A            REF: 176         MOD: Module 5-2 Operant Conditioning:  Learning Through Consequences       MSC: conceptual     KEY: Define/Describe

91. Which of the following is demonstrating extinction of an operant response?
92. A) Ginny, who learns to dress herself when her mother reinforces her for accomplishing each small step in the process
93. B) Ron, who receives praise every time he puts his schoolbooks away
94. C) Hermione, who eventually stops raising her hand when Professor Snape fails to call on her
95. D) Harry, who learns secret routes that provide an escape from the Dark Forest when he is under attack
96. E) Malfoy, who leaves school two days early at Christmas break to avoid the rush of holiday traffic

ANS: C            REF: 178         MOD: Module 5-2 Operant Conditioning:  Learning Through Consequences       MSC: applied           KEY: Apply

92. Compared to continuous reinforcement, partial reinforcement results in _______ learning that is _______ to extinguish.
93. A) faster; harder
94. B) slower; harder
95. C) faster; easier
96. D) slower; easier
97. E) faster; equally difficult

ANS: B            REF: 179-181         MOD: Module 5-2 Operant Conditioning:  Learning Through Consequences             MSC: conceptual                 OBJ: 5.8                 KEY: Evaluate/Explain

93. Compared to ratio schedules, interval schedules
94. A) result in faster response rates.
95. B) result in slower response rates.
96. C) result in similar response rates.
97. D) sometimes result in faster response rates and sometimes result in slower response rates.
98. E) can only be administered on a variable basis.

ANS: B            REF: 179-181         MOD: Module 5-2 Operant Conditioning:  Learning Through Consequences       MSC: factual        OBJ: 5.8                KEY: Evaluate/Explain

94. Vlad receives $100 for every ten telemarketing calls he makes. This is an example of a ______ schedule of reinforcement.
95. A) fixed ratio
96. B) variable ratio
97. C) fixed interval
98. D) variable interval
99. E) 100/10

ANS: A            REF: 179         MOD: Module 5-2 Operant Conditioning:  Learning Through Consequences       MSC: applied           KEY: Apply

95. The rats in Dr. Rexington’s learning laboratory are on an “FR-7” schedule of reinforcement. What does this mean?
96. A) The rats will receive a food pellet after every seventh bar press.
97. B) The rats will receive a food pellet after an average of every seven bar presses.
98. C) The rats will receive a food pellet every seven minutes.
99. D) The rats will receive a food pellet an average of every seven minutes.
100. E) The rats will receive a food pellet every seven minutes, unless they press the bar seven times in a shorter period of time.

ANS: A            REF: 179     MOD: Module 5-2 Operant Conditioning:  Learning Through Consequences

MSC: applied            KEY: Apply

96. A child receives a dime for, on average, every 5 dandelions he pulls from the yard. This is an example of a ______ schedule of reinforcement.
97. A) fixed ratio
98. B) variable ratio
99. C) fixed interval
100. D) variable interval
101. E) continuous reinforcement

ANS: B            REF: 179         MOD: Module 5-2 Operant Conditioning:  Learning Through Consequences       MSC: applied             KEY: Apply

97. Which of the following best describes charted data for a variable interval schedule of reinforcement?
98. A) slight dip in responses after reinforcement
99. B) slow, steady rate of response
100. C) responses decrease after an initial steep increase
101. D) fast, steady rates of response
102. E) responses pause after each reinforcement

ANS: B            REF: 180      MOD: Module 5-2 Operant Conditioning:  Learning Through Consequences       MSC: conceptual OBJ: 5.8                KEY: Evaluate/Explain

98. A schedule of reinforcement in which the first response performed after a specific amount of time has passed is reinforced is called a
99. A) fixed-ratio schedule.
100. B) fixed-interval schedule.
101. C) variable-interval schedule.
102. D) variable-ratio schedule.
103. E) continuous reinforcement schedule.

ANS: B            REF: 180     MOD: Module 5-2 Operant Conditioning:  Learning Through Consequences       MSC: factual           KEY: Define/Describe

99. Which of the following people is on a variable-ratio schedule of reinforcement?
100. A) Phillip, who is playing a slot machine at a casino
101. B) Colette, whose teacher uses pop quizzes
102. C) Jim, whose professor schedules three exams for the semester, one for every five weeks
103. D) Elissa, who receives a monthly performance evaluation
104. E) Angela, who receives compensation for every student she recruits for her college

ANS: A            REF: 179         MOD: Module  5-2 Operant Conditioning:  Learning Through Consequences       MSC: applied           OBJ: 5.8          KEY: Apply, Evaluate/Explain

100. In this type of schedule of reinforcement, a person receives reinforcement for different time periods, and the time periods are not always the same.
101. A) fixed-interval
102. B) variable-interval
103. C) variable-ratio
104. D) fixed-ratio
105. E) continuous

ANS: B            REF: 180      MOD: Module 5-2 Operant Conditioning:  Learning Through Consequences       MSC: factual           KEY: Identify

101. A “scalloped” response pattern is typical of which type of reinforcement schedule?
102. A) fixed-ratio
103. B) fixed-interval
104. C) variable-ratio
105. D) variable-interval
106. E) continuous

ANS: B            REF: 180      MOD: Module 5-2 Operant Conditioning:  Learning Through Consequences       MSC: conceptual OBJ: 5.8                 KEY: Identify, Evaluate/Explain

102. Helena has learned that she gets motion sickness easily. If Helena takes medicine before a boat ride so she doesn’t get sea sick, she is demonstrating
103. A) avoidance learning.
104. B) a phobia.
105. C) stimulus discrimination.
106. D) escape learning.
107. E)

ANS: A            REF: 181         MOD: Module 5-2 Operant Conditioning:  Learning Through Consequences       MSC: applied           OBJ: 5.9                          KEY: Apply, Evaluate/Explain

103. Paul has turned to alcohol in order to flee from the problems in his marriage. We can explain his behavior as a form of
104. A) superstitious behavior.
105. B) escape learning.
106. C) latent learning.
107. D) insight learning.
108. E) observational learning.

ANS: B            REF: 181         MOD: Module 5-2 Operant Conditioning:  Learning Through Consequences       MSC: applied                     OBJ: 5.9                 KEY: Apply, Evaluate/Explain

104. Rosa has learned to bring an umbrella with her on overcast days, explaining “I don’t want to get wet if it rains.” We can explain her behavior as a form of
105. A) superstitious behavior.
106. B) escape learning.
107. C) latent learning.
108. D) avoidance learning.
109. E) observational learning.

ANS: D            REF: 181       MOD: Module 5-2 Operant Conditioning:  Learning Through Consequences                      MSC: applied                   OBJ: 5.9                 KEY: Apply,        Evaluate/Explain

 

105. Chris has been experiencing a number of problems on the job. In order to get away from his problems for a while, Chris regularly drinks heavily in the evening, after work. We can be explain this behavior as a form of
106. A) escape learning
107. B) avoidance learning
108. C) positive reinforcement
109. D) negative reinforcement
110. E) punishment

ANS: A            REF: 181         MOD: Module 5-2 Operant Conditioning:  Learning Through Consequences       MSC: applied           OBJ: 5.9                          KEY: Apply,        Evaluate/Explain                 NOT: www

 

106. When Sara misbehaves, her parents respond by not allowing her to watch TV for a certain amount of time. Her parents are using which method of discipline?
107. A) escape learning
108. B) avoidance learning
109. C) negative reinforcement
110. D) positive reinforcement
111. E) punishment

ANS: E          REF: 181     MOD: Module 5-2 Operant Conditioning:  Learning Through        Consequences       MSC: conceptual      OBJ: 5.8                 KEY: Identify, Evaluate/Explain

107. Regarding punishment, which of the following statements is FALSE?
108. A) Psychologists and pediatricians encourage parents not to rely on punishment as a primary means of discipline.
109. B) Punishment can involve the presentation of an unpleasant stimulus.
110. C) Punishment can involve the removal of a reinforcing stimulus.
111. D) Punishment can be considered the flip side of reinforcement.
112. E) Negative reinforcement is the technical term for punishment.

ANS: E            REF: 181-183         MOD: Module 5-2 Operant Conditioning:  Learning Through Consequences       MSC: factual        OBJ: 5.8                 KEY: Evaluate/Explain

108. In operant conditioning, positive reinforcement ______ the likelihood of repeating a response, negative reinforcement ______ the likelihood of repeating a response, and punishment ______ the likelihood of repeating a response.
109. A) strengthens; weakens; weakens
110. B) strengthens; strengthens; strengthens
111. C) weakens; strengthens; strengthens
112. D) strengthens; weakens; strengthens
113. E) strengthens; strengthens; weakens

ANS: E            REF: 181-182         MOD: Module 5-2 Operant Conditioning:  Learning Through Consequences       MSC: factual        OBJ: 5.8                 KEY: Evaluate/Explain

109. Amita was just grounded by her parents. She is not allowed to use her computer or cell phone, or watch television. Which method of punishment are Amita’s parents using?
110. A) token economy
111. B) removal of a reinforcer
112. C) verbal reprimand
113. D) time-out
114. E) removal of a negative reinforce

ANS: B            REF: 182         MOD: Module 5-2 Operant Conditioning:  Learning Through Consequences       MSC: applied           OBJ: 5.10           KEY: Apply

110. Based on research presented in the text, which of the following is the best recommendation for disciplining children?
111. A) Rely mostly on reinforcement.
112. B) Avoid reinforcement; rely mostly on punishment to achieve faster effects.
113. C) Use only punishment.
114. D) Use only reinforcement.
115. E) Try to balance the use of reinforcement and punishment.

ANS: A            REF: 183         MOD: Module 5-2 Operant Conditioning:  Learning Through Consequences       MSC: conceptual OBJ: 5.10              KEY: Apply

111. All of the following are concerns about the use of punishment EXCEPT
112. A) it suppresses rather than eliminates behavior.
113. B) it may model inappropriate behavior.
114. C) it is difficult to administer.
115. D) it does not teach new behaviors.
116. E) it can lead to strong negative emotions.

ANS: C            REF: 182         MOD: Module 5-2 Operant Conditioning:  Learning Through Consequences       MSC: factual           OBJ: 5.8                          KEY: Evaluate/Explain

112. ______ is the systematic application of operant conditioning to strengthen adaptive behavior and weaken maladaptive behavior.
113. A) Biofeedback
114. B) Behavior modification
115. C) Token economy
116. D) Shaping
117. E) Programmed instruction

ANS: B            REF: 184         MOD: Module 5-2 Operant Conditioning:  Learning Through Consequences       MSC: factual           OBJ: 5.10        KEY: Apply

113. Rico attends technical college where he is using technology to study for the GED. His computer guides Rico through an inventory of increasingly more challenging questions. If he answers correctly, Rico moves up in challenge; if he answers incorrectly, the questions decrease in difficulty. Rico is using which application of operant conditioning?
114. A) the Skinner box
115. B) behavior modification
116. C) token economy
117. D) biofeedback
118. E) programmed instruction

ANS: E            REF: 184         MOD: Module 5-2 Operant Conditioning:  Learning Through Consequences       MSC: applied                     OBJ: 5.10              KEY: Apply

114. All but which of the following are examples of the application of principles of operant conditioning?
115. A) biofeedback training
116. B) computer-assisted instruction
117. C) conditioned immune system responses
118. D) programmed instruction
119. E) token economies

ANS: C            REF: 184         MOD: Module 5-2 Operant Conditioning:  Learning Through Consequences       MSC: conceptual OBJ: 5.10              KEY: Apply

115. Mr. Bonoir gives students stars on their homework when it is done well. A student can exchange 10 stars for a treat. This is a form of
116. A) token economy.
117. B)
118. C)
119. D) insight learning.
120. E) programmed instruction.

ANS: A            REF: 184         MOD: Module 5-2 Operant Conditioning:  Learning Through Consequences       MSC: applied           OBJ: 5.10        KEY: Apply

116. ______ is learning that occurs without the opportunity of first performing the learned response or being reinforced for it.
117. A) Operant conditioning
118. B) Higher-order conditioning
119. C) Classical conditioning
120. D) Creative learning
121. E) Cognitive learning

ANS: E            REF: 187         MOD: Module 5-3  Cognitive Learning       MSC: factual

OBJ: 5.11  KEY: Define/Describe

117. “Mental learning” is closest in meaning to which form of learning?
118. A) operant conditioning
119. B) cognitive learning
120. C) classical conditioning
121. D) creative learning
122. E) higher-order conditioning

ANS: E            REF: 187         MOD: Module 5-3  Cognitive Learning       MSC: factual

OBJ: 5.11  KEY: Define/Describe                       NOT: www

118. Each of the following describes a form of cognitive learning EXCEPT
119. A) observational learning.
120. B) insight learning.
121. C) operant conditioning.
122. D) latent learning.
123. E) vicarious learning.

ANS: C            REF: 187         MOD: Module 5-3  Cognitive Learning       MSC: factual

OBJ: 5.11  KEY: Define/Describe

119. Cognitive learning involves
120. A) mental processes that cannot be directly observed.
121. B) higher-order conditioning.
122. C) creative processes.
123. D) focused attention.
124. E) learning that occurs through repeated practice.

ANS: A            REF: 187         MOD: Module 5-3  Cognitive Learning       MSC: factual

OBJ: 5.11  KEY: Define/Describe

120. Which of the following are processes involved in cognitive learning?
121. A) problem solving
122. B) mental imaging
123. C) information processing but not mental imaging
124. D) mental imaging but not information processing
125. E) information processing, problem solving, and mental imaging

ANS: E            REF: 187        MOD: Module 5-3  Cognitive Learning       MSC: conceptual

KEY: Evaluate/Explain          NOT: www

121. Mentally working through a problem until the sudden realization of the solution occurs is referred to as
122. A) observational learning.
123. B) trial-and-error learning.
124. C) information processing.
125. D) insight learning.
126. E) latent learning.

ANS: D            REF: 187         MOD: Module 5-3  Cognitive Learning       MSC: factual

OBJ: 5.12   KEY: Define/Describe

122. While changing her tire, Marguerite bumped the hubcap and all of the lug nuts fell into a storm sewer. After fretting for several minutes, she suddenly realized she could remove one lug nut from each of the other three tires to temporarily mount the spare until she could get to a service station. This is an example of
123. A) superstitious behavior.
124. B) insight learning.
125. C) spontaneous recovery.
126. D)
127. E) latent learning.

ANS: B            REF: 187         MOD: Module 5-3  Cognitive Learning       MSC: applied

OBJ: 5.12                   KEY: Apply, Define/Describe

123. Caroline has an “Aha!” experience when solving a problem. Caroline most likely experienced which type of learning?
124. A) latent learning
125. B) insight learning
126. C) observational learning
127. D) operant conditioning
128. E) classical conditioning

ANS: B            REF: 187         MOD: Module 5-3  Cognitive Learning       MSC: applied

OBJ: 5.12   KEY: Apply, Define/Describe

 

124. Which of the following can best described as an example of  insight learning?
125. A) Deborah, who gives her 4-year-old son a hug every time he puts his toys away.
126. B) Samantha, who has wandered through the downtown area a number of times without having a particular goal in mind. When she is asked to take a friend to a particular restaurant, she almost immediately picks the shortest route.
127. C) Caruthers , who has been working on a particularly thorny problem in microbiology for a number of months. She then suddenly realizes the solution to her problem, seemingly without effort.
128. D) Jason, who has a flat tire while driving on a country road. He remembers having seen his dad change a flat tire before, so he doesn’t hesitate to attempt the task himself. He is successful in the attempt and is soon on his way again.
129. E) Patrick, who is planning to spend the day at the beach. He packs sunscreen and applies it to himself every two hours while he is at the beach because he doesn’t want to get a sunburn.

ANS: C            REF: 187-188         MOD: Module 5-3  Cognitive Learning       MSC: applied

OBJ: 5.12                   KEY: Apply, Define/Describe

125. Learning that occurs without apparent reinforcement and is not revealed in performance when it occurs is referred to as
126. A) insight learning.
127. B) classical conditioning.
128. C) spontaneous recovery.
129. D) latent learning.
130. E)

ANS: D            REF: 188         MOD: Module 5-3  Cognitive Learning       MSC: factual

OBJ: 5.12   KEY: Define/Describe

126. Which researcher conducted investigations of latent learning with rats in mazes?
127. A) Garcia
128. B) Skinner
129. C) Thorndike
130. D) Tolman
131. E) Kohler

ANS: D            REF: 188         MOD: Module 5-3  Cognitive Learning       MSC: factual

KEY: Identify                           NOT: www

 

127. Which of the following can best be described as an example of latent learning?
128. A) Deborah, who gives her four-year-old son a hug every time he puts his toys away.
129. B) Samantha, who has wandered through the downtown area a number of times without having a particular goal in mind. When she is asked to take a friend to a particular restaurant in that neighborhood, she almost immediately picks the shortest route.
130. C) Caruthers , who has been working on a particularly thorny problem in microbiology for a number of months. She then suddenly realizes the solution to her problem, seemingly without effort.
131. D) Jason, who has a flat tire while driving on a country road. He remembers having seen his dad change a flat tire before, so he doesn’t hesitate to attempt the task himself. He is successful in the attempt and is soon on his way again.
132. E) Patrick, who is planning to spend the day at the beach. He packs sunscreen and applies it to himself every two hours while he is at the beach because he doesn’t want to get a sunburn.

ANS: B           REF: 188         MOD: Module 5-3  Cognitive Learning       MSC: factual

OBJ: 5.12                   KEY: Identify, Define/Describe

128. Omar’s parents have been trying to teach him their telephone number. He appears unable to recite it correctly. One day, he overhears his father mention that he would buy Omar a new toy if he could learn the number. Omar immediately blurts out the correct number. This demonstrates
129. A) latent learning.
130. B) spontaneous recovery.
131. C) observational learning.
132. D)
133. E) insight learning.

ANS: A            REF: 188         MOD: Module 5-3  Cognitive Learning       MSC: applied

OBJ: 5.12   KEY: Apply, Define/Describe

129. In the classic latent learning experiments described in your text, it appears that the rats developed a mental representation of the maze. Researchers call this mental representation a
130. A) discriminative stimulus.
131. B) cognitive map.
132. C) mental device.
133. D) secondary reinforcer.
134. E) latent structure.

ANS: B            REF: 188         MOD: Module 5-3  Cognitive Learning       MSC: factual   OBJ: 5.12

KEY: Define/Describe

130. Observational learning is also referred to as
131. A) insight learning or latent learning.
132. B) operant conditioning.
133. C) vicarious learning or modeling.
134. D) classical conditioning.
135. E)

ANS: C            REF: 189         MOD: Module 5-3  Cognitive Learning       MSC: factual

OBJ: 5.12   KEY: Define/Describe

131. “When in Rome, do as the Romans do,” underscores the importance of ______ in learning.
132. A) modeling
133. B) latency
134. C) insight
135. D) shaping
136. E) reinforcement

ANS: A            REF: 189         MOD: Module 5-3  Cognitive Learning       MSC: conceptual

KEY: Evaluate/Explain

 

132. Which of the following can best described as an example of observational learning?
133. A) Deborah, who gives her four-year-old son a hug every time he puts his toys away.
134. B) Samantha, who has wandered through the downtown area a number of times without having a particular goal in mind. When she is asked to take a friend to a particular restaurant in that neighborhood, she almost immediately picks the shortest route.
135. C) Caruthers , who has been working on a particularly thorny problem in microbiology for a number of months. She then suddenly realizes the solution to her problem, seemingly without effort.
136. D) Jason, who has a flat tire while driving on a country road. He remembers having seen his dad change a flat tire before, so he doesn’t hesitate to attempt the task himself. He is successful in the attempt and is soon on his way again.
137. E) Patrick, who is planning to spend the day at the beach. He packs sunscreen and applies it to himself every two hours while he is at the beach because he doesn’t want to get a sunburn.

ANS: B           REF: 189         MOD: Module 5-3  Cognitive Learning       MSC: factual

OBJ: 5.12   KEY: Identify, Define/Describe

133. Which of the following does NOT belong?
134. A) observation
135. B) modeling
136. C) vicarious learning
137. D) conditioned stimulus
138. E) imitation

ANS: D            REF: 189         MOD: Module 5-3  Cognitive Learning       MSC: conceptual

OBJ: 5.12   KEY: Evaluate/Explain

134. Psychologist Albert Bandura believes that children learn aggression through
135. A) classical conditioning.
136. B) insight learning.
137. C) observing and imitating models.
138. D) latent learning.
139. E) none of these; Bandura believes that aggression is an inborn quality.

ANS: C            REF: 189         MOD: Module 5-3  Cognitive Learning       MSC: conceptual

OBJ: 5.12   KEY: Define/Describe                        NOT: www

135. Regarding observational learning, which of the following is FALSE?
136. A) The influence of modeling is weaker when the model is similar to the learner.
137. B) Modeling influences a wide range of human behaviors, from forming opinions to ways of resolving conflicts with others.
138. C) Observational learning has been found to play a greater role in the development of phobias than direct conditioning.
139. D) Through observational learning, people become capable of behaviors before they have even practiced those behaviors.
140. E) People are more likely to imitate models that receive rewards for performing the observed behavior.

ANS: A            REF: 189-190         MOD: Module 5-3  Cognitive Learning       MSC: factual

KEY: Evaluate/Explain

136. Which of the following best describes Bandura’s research and subsequent general conclusions about the effects of violent television on behavior?
137. A) Bandura believed that children become more aggressive after observing aggressive models on television, and his research has been supported.
138. B) Bandura believed that children become more aggressive after observing aggressive models on television, and his research has been partially supported with only some groups of children.
139. C) Bandura believed that children become more aggressive after observing aggressive models on television, and his research has been supported, but only with children who showed aggressive tendencies beforehand.
140. D) Bandura believed that children do become more aggressive after observing aggressive models on television, and his research has not been supported.
141. E) Bandura believed that children do not become more aggressive after observing aggressive models on television, and his hypothesis has been supported.

ANS: A            REF: 189-190         MOD: Module 5-3  Cognitive Learning       MSC: factual

KEY: Evaluate/Explain

137. A clear connection between a behavior and a reinforcement is referred to as
138. A) a continuity.
139. B) a contingency.
140. C) a discriminative stimulus.
141. D) a reinforcement connection.
142. E) a primary connection.

ANS: B            REF: 192         MOD: Module 5-4 Application: Putting Reinforcement into Practice       MSC: factual    KEY: Define/Describe

138. ______ is a process by which two people in a relationship list the behaviors of the other that they would like changed, and then they agree to reinforce each other for making the changes.
139. A) Behavioral management
140. B) Method of successive approximations
141. C) Reinforcement scheduling
142. D) Cognitive mapping
143. E) Contingency contracting

ANS: E            REF: 192         MOD: Module 5-4 Application: Putting Reinforcement into Practice       MSC: factual    KEY: Define/Describe

139. Karl wishes to reinforce positive behavior in his fourth grade students. After identifying the desired behaviors, what would be Karl’s next step?
140. A) track the frequency of desired behaviors
141. B) wean the children from the reinforcers
142. C) explain contingencies
143. D) select reinforcers
144. E) apply reinforcers

ANS: D            REF: 192         MOD: Module 5-4 Application: Putting Reinforcement into Practice       MSC: applied   OBJ: 5.13    KEY: Apply

140. Donatello is using the guidelines for reinforcement with her son Giovanni. Donatello tells her son, “Giovanni, when you clean up all of your toys, you’ll get a gold star on your chart.” Which guideline is Donatello working with?
141. A) using social reinforcement to maintain the behavior
142. B) selecting a reinforcer
143. C) applying the reinforcer
144. D) tracking the frequency of desired behavior
145. E) explaining the contingency

ANS: E            REF: 192         MOD: Module 5-4 Application: Putting Reinforcement into Practice       MSC: applied    OBJ: 5.13   KEY: Apply, Identify

141. Of the following parents giving praise to their child, which is using the most effective strategy?
142. A) Abdul tells his daughter, “You’re a good girl” when she is polite to the neighbor.
143. B) Barney tells his son, “I’m so proud of how well you prepared for your biology test.”
144. C) Cornelius uses the phrase, “You did a wonderful job” every time he praises his daughter.
145. D) Darnell says to his son, “I’m proud of how you played tennis, but maybe next time you’ll get more points.”
146. E) Ed, who after his daughter shows him her artwork, avoids making eye contact but says, “That’s a great job you did.”

ANS: B            REF: 192-193         MOD: Module 5-4 Application: Putting Reinforcement into Practice       MSC: applied           OBJ: 5.13        KEY: Apply

142. Although Hannah knows that praise strengthens desirable behavior in children, she is not sure what specific strategies she should use. Which of the following guidelines should Hannah follow?
143. A) Reward the outcome, not the effort.
144. B) Show a serious expression when giving praise to underscore the importance of the behavior.
145. C) Combine physical contact with verbal praise.
146. D) Give general praise for all accomplishments to build overall self-esteem.
147. E) Repeat praise regularly.

ANS: C            REF: 192         MOD: Module 5-4 Application: Putting Reinforcement into Practice       MSC: applied   OBJ: 5.13   KEY: Apply

 

143. Every time her husband pays her a compliment, Sarah looks him in the eye and smiles at him. This is an example of
144. A) negative reinforcement.
145. B) positive reinforcement.
146. C) primary reinforcement.
147. D) observational learning.
148. E) latent learning.

ANS: B            REF: 192         MOD: Module 5-4 Application: Putting Reinforcement into Practice       MSC: applied   OBJ: 5.13   KEY: Apply

 

144. Karen agrees to replace the toilet paper when it runs out if her roommate, Susan, will wash her dirty dishes every evening after dinner. This is an example of
145. A) latent learning.
146. B) escape learning.
147. C) applying reinforcement.
148. D) giving praise.
149. E) contingency contracting.

ANS: E           REF: 192         MOD: Module 5-4 Application: Putting Reinforcement into Practice       MSC: applied     OBJ: 5.13   KEY: Apply                    NOT: www

 

145. Shawn does extremely well on his spelling test in school. His father praises Shawn for this test score and tells him how smart he is, but he should be able to learn the next list of words even faster. Where giving praise is concerned, Shawn’s Dad needs to know about the principle of
146. A) “Be specific.”
147. B) “Connect by making eye contact.”
148. C) “Don’t end on a sour note.”
149. D) “Avoid empty flattery.”
150. E) “Reward the effort, not the outcome.”

ANS: E            REF: 193         MOD: Module 5-4 Application: Putting Reinforcement into Practice       MSC: applied    OBJ :  5.13   KEY: Apply

 

 

 

ESSAY

 

1. Summarize how classical conditioning is achieved.

ANS:

Classical conditioning involves learning an association between two stimuli. It makes use of a pre-existing reflexive response. For example, a puff of air into the eye causes a blink. The puff of air is the unconditioned stimulus (US) and the blink is the unconditioned response (UR). A different, neutral stimulus (NS) such as a tone is presented in conjunction with the US. After several combinations, the US can be withdrawn and the blink is elicited by the tone alone. At this point, the tone is the conditioned stimulus (CS) and the blink is the conditioned response (CR).

MOD: MODULE 5-1 Classical Conditioning: Learning Through Association

 

2. Distinguish between the different schedules of reinforcement.

ANS:

Under continuous reinforcement, every occurrence of a targeted behavior results in a reinforcement. For example, the rat in the Skinner box is reinforced with one food pellet every time it presses the lever.  Learning occurs quickly under continuous reinforcement, but extinction also occurs quickly. With a fixed-ratio schedule of reinforcement, the reinforcer is given after a predetermined number of responses is made. For example, under a FR-3 schedule, the rat in the Skinner box receives a food pellet after every third bar press. A variable ratio schedule occurs when the number of correct responses required for the reinforcement varies around some predetermined number. For example, under a VR-5 schedule, the rat in the Skinner box may have to press the lever 8 times to get a reinforcement on one occasion, but on another occasion the first bar press results in a reinforcement. Over a large number of trials, the required number of bar presses averages to 5. Variable ratio schedules usually produce a very high, steady rate of responding, and are resistant to extinction. Under a fixed interval schedule, reinforcement is given for the first correct response after a fixed amount of time has passed. For example, under a FI-15 schedule, the rat in a Skinner box will receive a food pellet for the first bar press after a 15-second timer has elapsed.  The fixed interval schedules frequently produced a “scalloped” response pattern in which the frequency of responses drop after a reinforcement is given, then increase near the end of the interval. Elderly people sometimes display this pattern of behavior when checking the mail. They sometimes watch for the letter carrier and check their mailboxes several times as the time for mail delivery approaches, but once the letter carrier has come, they stop checking the mail until it is almost time for the next day’s delivery. In a variable-interval schedule, the amount of time that must pass before a behavior results in a reinforcement is allowed to vary from occasion to occasion. For example, a VI-30 schedule means that the period of time between reinforcements varies around an average of 30 seconds. On some trials the interval will be shorter, on others it will be longer. VI schedules tend to produce slow, steady response rates, and tend to be more resistant to extinction than behaviors that are reinforced on a fixed interval schedule.

MOD: MODULE 5-2 Operant Conditioning:  Learning Through Consequences

3. Summarize the three types of cognitive learning.

ANS:

One type of cognitive learning is insight learning. This is the type of learning that occurs when one mentally works through a problem until the correct answer suddenly becomes apparent. This is sometimes referred to as “Aha!” learning. Another type is latent learning. This occurs when there is learning, but the organism does not necessarily display the learning when it occurs. At some later point when reinforcement for the response is introduced, the learning is demonstrated. Modeling (also called vicarious conditioning or observational learning) occurs when an organism learns by observing and imitating others.

MOD: MODULE 5-3  Cognitive Learning

4. List 7 steps for using praise effectively with children.

ANS:

First, the adult should have good non-verbal communication by making eye contact with the child and smiling when giving praise. Second, physical contact should be combined with verbal praise. Third, adults should be very specific about the desired behavior that was accomplished and not speak in vague terms. Fourth, avoid the use of empty flattery. Fifth, adults should praise the effort rather than the outcome. Sixth, adults should avoid using the same words every time praise is being used; otherwise, the praise will lose its appeal. Finally, praise should not be followed by some related criticism (e.g. You did well, but…).        MOD: MODULE 5-4 Application: Putting Reinforcement into Practice