Essentials of Understanding Psychology 13Th Edition By Robert Feldmen - Test Bank Instant Download - Complete Test Bank With Answers Sample Questions Are Posted Below Essentials of Understanding Psychology, 13e (Feldman) Chapter 5 Learning 1) Psychologists use the term ________ to refer to a relatively permanent change in behavior brought …
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Essentials of Understanding Psychology 13Th Edition By Robert Feldmen – Test Bank
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Essentials of Understanding Psychology, 13e (Feldman)
Chapter 5 Learning
1) Psychologists use the term ________ to refer to a relatively permanent change in behavior brought about by experience.
2) Which of the following types of learning explains phenomena such as crying at the sight of a bride walking down the aisle, fearing the dark, and falling in love?
3) ________ permits us to ignore things that have stopped providing new information.
4) You toss a newly purchased felt mouse across the floor; your cat chases it excitedly, clutches it in her paws, and rolls around with it. Several tosses later, your cat yawns pointedly and settles herself for a nap. The change in your cat’s behavior illustrates
5) ________ is credited with laying the foundation for the study of classical conditioning in psychology.
6) ________ is a type of learning in which a neutral stimulus comes to bring about a response after it is paired with a stimulus that naturally brings about that response.
7) ________ stimulus is a stimulus that does not naturally bring about the response of interest.
8) ________ stimulus is a stimulus that naturally brings about a particular response without having been learned.
9) As a child, Tim loved salami sandwiches but was not particularly fond of dill pickles. However, his mother would always serve the pickles with salami sandwiches. Now, the sight of even an empty dill pickle jar makes his mouth water. In the context of classical conditioning, the pickle jar is a(n) ________ and salami is a(n) ________.
10) Alexis uses cocaine, which activates her sympathetic nervous system. Expecting her dealer, her hands shake and her heart pounds when she hears a knock on the door. Which alternative below correctly identifies the neutral stimulus, the CS, and the UCS?
11) In classical conditioning, an unconditioned stimulus
12) Which of the following is TRUE of unconditioned responses?
13) In Pavlov’s study, the unconditioned stimulus (UCS) was ________; the neutral stimulus was ________; and, finally, the conditioned stimulus (CS) was ________.
14) Classical conditioning is most successful when the neutral stimulus begins
15) Many people experience hunger pangs at the sight of McDonald’s golden arches. In the context of classical conditioning, the golden arches are a(n) ________ and the hunger pangs on seeing the arches are a(n) ________.
16) Jonas is a veteran of the war in Iraq. He suffers from posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Now, back home in a quiet California neighborhood, he jumps when he hears a firecracker or a car backfire. In the terminology of classical conditioning, these sounds are best thought of as ________ stimuli.
17) In the context of classical conditioning, which of the following actions is most likely to produce extinction?
18) In the context of classical conditioning, during extinction, a conditioned stimulus is
19) Danny visited the zoo with his parents. A week later, his grandparents took him to the zoo when he asked them. For the next few days, he kept asking his parents to take him to the zoo again. About two weeks later, he stopped asking to be taken to the zoo. The given scenario exemplifies
20) In classical conditioning, a conditioned stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus are presented together during
21) The reemergence of an extinguished conditioned response after a period of rest and with no further conditioning is known as
22) Every time 5-year-old Peter picked up his toys, his mother gave him a penny. After some time, she stopped giving him pennies to pick up his toys. Over the next few weeks, Peter gradually stopped asking for pennies. Three months later, when Peter picked up his toys, he asked his mother for a penny. In the given scenario, Peter asking for a penny after a period of 3 months exemplifies
23) ________ is a process in which, after a stimulus has been conditioned to produce a particular response, stimuli that are similar to the original stimulus produce the same response.
24) Which of the following is TRUE of stimulus generalization?
25) Which of the following scenarios exemplifies stimulus generalization?
26) Ramona takes her 4-year-old daughter to a park. While her daughter plays in the sand pit, Ramona sits and chats with her friends. When she hears two girls fighting, she does not worry as she recognizes that it’s not her daughter’s voice. The given scenario illustrates
27) June’s cat runs to the kitchen at the sound of the electric can opener, which she has learned is used to open her food when her dinner is about to be served. The cat does not run when a blender is used, although it sounds similar. June’s cat is demonstrating stimulus
28) When Mathew was a child, he ate some red berries from his garden. He fell violently sick after eating them. Now, he refuses to eat any red-colored fruits. In the context of classical conditioning, the given scenario illustrates
29) Which of the following statements is TRUE of learned taste aversion?
30) In what way does learned taste aversion not seem to follow the basic principles of classical conditioning?
31) ________ is learning in which a voluntary response is strengthened or weakened, depending on its favorable or unfavorable consequences.
32) Operant conditioning most importantly involves forming associations between
33) In operant conditioning, an organism
34) The root of operant conditioning may be traced to ________’s early studies of hungry cats learning to escape from cages.
35) “Responses that lead to satisfying consequences are more likely to be repeated.” This is the law of
36) The most influential psychologist to study operant conditioning was
37) The process by which a stimulus increases the likelihood that a preceding behavior will be repeated is called
38) Which of the following statements is TRUE of primary reinforcers?
39) A ________ is any stimulus that increases the probability that a preceding behavior will occur again.
40) Reinforcers that satisfy a biological need are called ________ reinforcers.
41) In the context of operant conditioning, which of the following is TRUE of reinforcement?
42) Caroline is playing in the snow in her yard. Her father calls her to come inside the house as it is getting late. Caroline does not want to go inside and ignores her father. After a while, she starts to feel cold and goes inside the house to keep warm. In the given scenario, the feeling of warmth is a
43) Noah’s mother gives him a dollar every Friday evening if he finishes his chores for the week without being reminded. He diligently finishes his chores every week, and he uses the money to buy candies over the weekend. In the given scenario, the weekly allowance acts as a(n)
44) The term reward is associated with
45) Cabe pulls a muscle in his leg. His doctor asks him to apply ice on the injury. Even though he does not like to apply cold packs, Cabe does it because he feels instant relief from the pain. In the given scenario, the relief from pain is a
46) As part of a behavior modification program, Kendra and her partner each agree to praise the other if they complete their assigned household chores by the end of the day. Such praise is an example of
47) A(n) ________ reinforcer is a stimulus added to the environment, like getting paid to work, that specifically brings about an increase in a preceding response.
48) A(n) ________ reinforcer refers to the removal of an unpleasant stimulus, putting on a sweater when you’re cold for example, which leads to an increase in the probability that a preceding response will be repeated in the future.
49) Dr. Isonzo notices several students nodding in agreement as he lectures. Subsequently, his rhetoric becomes more confident and more passionate. The students have provided ________ reinforcement.
50) Which of the following statements is TRUE of negative reinforcement?
51) Which of the following scenarios exemplifies negative reinforcement?
52) ________ weakens a response through the application of an unpleasant stimulus.
53) Which of the following scenarios exemplify negative punishment?
54) Which of the following is an example of positive punishment?
55) Sheryl’s parents have told her that she is “grounded” and will not be allowed to watch any television for a week, because she is not completing her assignments on time. This is an example of
56) Which of the following is an example of negative punishment?
57) Which of the following types of consequences is correctly matched with an example?
58) Identify the type of consequence that is correctly matched with an example.
59) Which of the following is a disadvantage of punishment?
60) In the context of operant conditioning, which of the following statements is TRUE of reinforcement?
61) You don’t receive a smile or a “thank you” each time you hold a door for the person behind you. It is acknowledged sometimes. Door-holding is reinforced on a(n) ________ reinforcement schedule.
62) Vending machine is to slot machine what ________ reinforcement is to ________ reinforcement.
63) A fixed-ratio schedule is a schedule
64) Which of the following promotions exemplifies the use of a fixed-ratio schedule of reinforcement?
65) Dr. Arceneaux wants his students to take advantage of online practice quizzes on his course site. Which of the following is the most effective plan to increase the number of practice quizzes completed?
66) A variable-ratio schedule is a schedule
67) Dr. Arceneaux has developed several alternative plans to increase the number of online practice quizzes his students complete. Which plan below is INCORRECTLY matched with the related schedule?
68) Mandy has a habit of buying lottery tickets every day. She won her first lottery when she was a freshman in college. Three months after her first win, she won another lottery. She won her third lottery two years later when she was a junior. She wants to stop buying tickets but cannot resist doing so as her winnings act as reinforcement for her buying behavior. In the context of operant conditioning, which of the following reinforcement schedules do the lottery winnings illustrate?
69) The schedules of reinforcement that yield the highest response rates are
70) Typically, long pauses in responding are found in ________ schedules.
71) Which of the following statements is TRUE of variable-interval schedules?
72) Emma is a video-game programmer. She writes the code for a game in which players are awarded five points every time they complete three tasks in the game. The players are also awarded five points at midnight every day. In the context of operant conditioning, the award of five points follows the ________ of reinforcement.
73) A privately funded program pays low-income parents $50 every two months for each child who attends school regularly during that period. This incentive illustrates a ________ schedule of reinforcement.
74) A fixed-interval schedule is a schedule
75) Maggie works in a garment manufacturing company. For every three blouses she stitches, she is paid five dollars. Such a payment schedule is an example of a ________ of reinforcement.
76) Jamie plays an adventure video game in which a magic sword appears sometimes to help him score more points. The appearance of the sword is not dependent on Jamie’s performance in the game. He does not know when the sword will appear, so he is always prepared to grab it. In the context of operant conditioning, the appearance of the magic sword illustrates a ________ of reinforcement.
77) Which of the following is TRUE about stimulus control training?
78) Ewan is convinced that a woman across the bar is “sending signals.” A theorist who studies operant conditioning would term such signals
79) Behaving negatively toward all members of a racial group because one has had an unpleasant experience with one member of that group is an example of
80) Sheryl makes pleasant small talk and pays her boss a compliment before asking for a personal day because such a strategy was successful with a few of her previous bosses. This example most clearly illustrates
81) The process of teaching a complex behavior by reinforcing closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior is called
82) Mrs. Martin, a third-grade teacher, is instructing cursive writing. At first, she reinforces even crude attempts to reproduce letters with an encouraging word; as time goes on, though, she reinforces only well-formed letters. By reinforcing progressively better attempts at writing letters, Mrs. Martin is using
83) Which of the following is a similarity between classical conditioning and operant conditioning?
84) Which of the following types of learning applies to involuntary behavior?
85) Dr. Simonelli is a practicing behavior analyst. What does she do?
86) ________ is a technique for promoting the frequency of desirable conducts and decreasing the incidence of unwanted ones.
87) When people start learning to drive a car, they already know the basic elements of driving from previous experience as passengers. It is likely that they have already noticed how the key is inserted into the ignition, the car is put in drive, and the gas pedal is pressed to make the car move forward. Acquiring knowledge of the basic elements of driving illustrates
88) The ________ is an approach to the study of learning that focuses on the thought processes that underlie learning.
89) Which of the following statements is TRUE of psychologists working from the cognitive learning perspective?
90) According to the cognitive learning theory,
91) According to classical conditioning, learning
92) Learning in which a new behavior is acquired but is not demonstrated until some incentive is provided for displaying it is known as ________ learning.
93) Every Saturday, Adam takes the bus to the farmer’s market to buy fresh produce. One Sunday, the bus service is disrupted, and he decides to drive. He is not sure he knows the route to the market. However, when he starts driving, he realizes that he knows the route from his weekly bus rides. In the context of cognitive learning, Adam’s knowledge of the route to the farmer’s market demonstrates
94) Identify a TRUE statement about latent learning.
95) Recall Tolman and Honzik’s latent learning experiments in which rats learned to run through a maze. Rats that began to receive an incentive halfway through the experiment rapidly matched the performance of rats that had been reinforced from the beginning of the experiment. According to cognitive learning theorists, the reduction in errors indicated that the former group of rats
96) A(n) ________ is a mental representation of spatial locations and directions.
97) You have a kind of picture in your head of your hometown, a mental representation of its layout and the location of key landmarks, like rivers, buildings, freeways, and parks. This representation is called a(n)
98) Learning by watching the behavior of another person, or model, is known as
99) Albert Bandura’s perspective on learning is referred to as a(n) ________ approach to learning because of its reliance on observation of others.
100) Which of the following types of learning is most appropriate for acquiring skills that cannot be learned by using trial-and-error methods without grave cost?
101) Which of the following statements is TRUE of observational learning?
102) Natasha is a 6-year-old girl who is afraid of dogs. However, when she notices her neighbors playing with their dogs, she wants to play with them too. She pets the dogs and soon plays with them. In the given scenario, Natasha exhibits
103) Viewing violent media
104) Exposure to media violence
105) On his way home from the mall, Adrian, a 16-year-old, witnesses a fight breaking out next to him. He is accidentally hit and suffers a minor injury. However, the person standing next to him is critically injured. In the context of observational learning, which of the following is most likely to happen in the next couple of years?
106) Travis is an intuitive thinker with a highly developed ability to remember verbal material, especially if it is highly relevant. Janet is detail-oriented, with an excellent memory for abstract material. She is not easily dissuaded by dull tasks. Which of the following statements best identifies the learning styles of these two individuals?
107) Which of the following CORRECTLY pairs a learning style with one of its characteristics?
108) Which of the following is a characteristic of people with an analytical learning style?
109) Neal, an Asian-American student, would most likely
110) Those with an analytical learning style
111) ________ is a decline in the behavioral response following repeated exposure to the same stimulus.
112) In Pavlov’s study, the bell is both a(n) ________ stimulus and a conditioned stimulus.
113) A bright flash automatically causes us to blink. It is a(n) ________ response.
114) ________ are intense, irrational fears.
115) ________ occurs when an extinguished conditioned response reappears after a period of rest and with no further conditioning.
116) Adam was badly stung by a bee when he was a child. Now he is frightened not only of bees but of all flying insects. This example illustrates ________.
117) Olympia consumed some poorly stored sushi on a hot day; she became violently ill. Now Olympia can’t stand the sight of sushi. She has developed a(n) ________.
118) A stimulus that increases the probability that a preceding behavior will occur again is termed a(n) ________.
119) Money is an example of a(n) ________ reinforcer.
120) Positive punishment ________ a response through the application of an unpleasant stimulus.
121) A weekly paycheck is an example of a(n) ________ schedule.
122) When a behavior is reinforced in the presence of a specific stimulus, but not in its absence it is known as ________ training.
123) When your partner says, “I’m going up to bed early,” you follow expectantly. When he or she says, “I’m tired,” you stay behind and say you’ll read in the living room for a while. This is an example of a ________ stimulus.
124) Shaping is one way that organisms learn ________ behavior.
125) Dr. Margate specializes in using behavior modification techniques to help adults engage in health-promoting behaviors, such as exercising, quitting smoking, and so forth. Dr. Margate is a behavior ________.
126) In the latent learning study described in the text, the rats that were reinforced only during the latter portion of the experiment would be considered a(n) ________ group.
127) In observational learning, the person whose behavior is observed is termed the ________.
128) Mother animals teaching their young such activities as hunting is an example of ________.
129) ________ are neurons that fire when we observe another person’s behavior.
130) Although a “phonics” approach to reading instruction might capitalize on an analytic learning style, the “whole-word” approach may be better suited to a(n) ________ learning style.
131) Explain classical conditioning with a suitable example.
132) In the case of Pavlov and his dog, identify and describe the following: neutral stimulus, unconditioned stimulus, unconditioned response, conditioned stimulus, and conditioned response.
133) Making specific reference to such terms as UCS, CS, UCR, CR, and stimulus generalization, explain how classical conditioning may account for the development of a specific phobia.
134) Explain how classical conditioning hinders the treatment of drug addiction.
135) Explain the concept of extinction in classical conditioning.
136) What is spontaneous recovery in classical conditioning?
137) Briefly discuss stimulus generalization with an example.
138) Explain stimulus discrimination with an example.
139) How have psychologists challenged Pavlov’s traditional account of classical conditioning?
140) Briefly discuss the concept of learned taste aversion.
141) Edward L. Thorndike formulated the law of effect after conducting an experiment on a cat in a puzzle box. Briefly describe the puzzle box that he used for the experiment.
142) Briefly discuss Edward L. Thorndike’s law of effect.
143) Imagine that you are a parent, a teacher, or a supervisor in a workplace. Give specific examples of how you might use (a) positive reinforcement, (b) negative reinforcement, (c) positive punishment, and (d) negative punishment to bring about desirable changes in the behavior of a child, student, or subordinate worker.
144) What are the pros and cons of punishment?
145) Explain why reinforcement is more effective than punishment.
146) Compare the four schedules of intermittent reinforcement in operant conditioning. Discuss their impact on the response rate.
147) Draw on your knowledge of positive and negative reinforcement, punishment, schedules of reinforcement, stimulus control training, discriminative stimuli, shaping, and biological constraints on learning to describe how you might use operant conditioning to train domestic animals (e.g., dogs, cats, horses, etc.) to perform desired behaviors.
148) Identify a behavior of your own that you would like to perform more frequently (e.g., studying, completing household chores or yard work) or less frequently (e.g., snacking, smoking cigarettes). Outline a step-by-step behavior modification program that might help you achieve your goal.
149) How do the phenomena of latent and observational learning force a reconsideration of the view of learning offered by classical and operant conditioning theorists?
Provide as thoughtful a response as you can.
150) Briefly describe observational learning and Bandura’s Bobo doll research. Discuss how this research altered conventional views of learning. What role might mirror neurons play in observational learning?
151) What is latent learning? Give an example of latent learning.
152) Observational learning research suggests that seeing others reinforced for particular behaviors may encourage our own acquisition of similar behaviors. To what extent is exposure to media violence associated with the acquisition of aggressive behavior?
153) To what extent does culture influence learning style? Distinguish between analytic and relational learning styles and suggest how they might vary across sociocultural groups. How might they reflect cross-cultural differences in parenting or teaching practices?
Essentials of Understanding Psychology, 13e (Feldman)
Chapter 5 Learning
1) Psychologists use the term ________ to refer to a relatively permanent change in behavior brought about by experience.
Answer: D
Difficulty: 1 Easy Page Ref: 162
Section: 15: Classical Conditioning
Topic: Learning
Learning Objective: Summarize the types of learning.
Bloom’s: Remember
APA Outcome: 1.2: Develop a working knowledge of psychology’s content domains
2) Which of the following types of learning explains phenomena such as crying at the sight of a bride walking down the aisle, fearing the dark, and falling in love?
Answer: A
Difficulty: 1 Easy Page Ref: 162
Section: 15: Classical Conditioning
Topic: Classical Conditioning; Learning
Learning Objective: Summarize the types of learning.
Bloom’s: Remember
APA Outcome: 1.1: Describe key concepts, principles, and overarching themes in psychology
3) ________ permits us to ignore things that have stopped providing new information.
Answer: C
Difficulty: 1 Easy Page Ref: 162
Section: 15: Classical Conditioning
Topic: Learning
Learning Objective: Summarize the types of learning.
Bloom’s: Remember
APA Outcome: 1.1: Describe key concepts, principles, and overarching themes in psychology
4) You toss a newly purchased felt mouse across the floor; your cat chases it excitedly, clutches it in her paws, and rolls around with it. Several tosses later, your cat yawns pointedly and settles herself for a nap. The change in your cat’s behavior illustrates
Answer: B
Difficulty: 2 Medium Page Ref: 162
Section: 15: Classical Conditioning
Topic: Learning
Learning Objective: Summarize the types of learning.
Bloom’s: Apply
APA Outcome: 1.2: Develop a working knowledge of psychology’s content domains
5) ________ is credited with laying the foundation for the study of classical conditioning in psychology.
Answer: C
Difficulty: 1 Easy Page Ref: 163
Section: 15: Classical Conditioning
Topic: Classical Conditioning
Learning Objective: Explain classical conditioning.
Bloom’s: Remember
APA Outcome: 1.2: Develop a working knowledge of psychology’s content domains
6) ________ is a type of learning in which a neutral stimulus comes to bring about a response after it is paired with a stimulus that naturally brings about that response.
Answer: A
Difficulty: 1 Easy Page Ref: 163
Section: 15: Classical Conditioning
Topic: Classical Conditioning
Learning Objective: Explain classical conditioning.
Bloom’s: Remember
APA Outcome: 1.2: Develop a working knowledge of psychology’s content domains
7) ________ stimulus is a stimulus that does not naturally bring about the response of interest.
Answer: C
Difficulty: 1 Easy Page Ref: 163
Section: 15: Classical Conditioning
Topic: Classical Conditioning
Learning Objective: Explain classical conditioning.
Bloom’s: Remember
APA Outcome: 1.2: Develop a working knowledge of psychology’s content domains
8) ________ stimulus is a stimulus that naturally brings about a particular response without having been learned.
Answer: B
Difficulty: 1 Easy Page Ref: 163
Section: 15: Classical Conditioning
Topic: Classical Conditioning
Learning Objective: Explain classical conditioning.
Bloom’s: Remember
APA Outcome: 1.2: Develop a working knowledge of psychology’s content domains
9) As a child, Tim loved salami sandwiches but was not particularly fond of dill pickles. However, his mother would always serve the pickles with salami sandwiches. Now, the sight of even an empty dill pickle jar makes his mouth water. In the context of classical conditioning, the pickle jar is a(n) ________ and salami is a(n) ________.
Answer: A
Difficulty: 3 Hard Page Ref: 163
Section: 15: Classical Conditioning
Topic: Classical Conditioning
Learning Objective: Explain classical conditioning.
Bloom’s: Apply
APA Outcome: 1.3: Describe applications of psychology
10) Alexis uses cocaine, which activates her sympathetic nervous system. Expecting her dealer, her hands shake and her heart pounds when she hears a knock on the door. Which alternative below correctly identifies the neutral stimulus, the CS, and the UCS?
Answer: C
Difficulty: 2 Medium Page Ref: 163
Section: 15: Classical Conditioning
Topic: Classical Conditioning
Learning Objective: Explain classical conditioning.
Bloom’s: Apply
APA Outcome: 1.2: Develop a working knowledge of psychology’s content domains; 1.3: Describe applications of psychology
11) In classical conditioning, an unconditioned stimulus
Answer: C
Difficulty: 2 Medium Page Ref: 163
Section: 15: Classical Conditioning
Topic: Classical Conditioning
Learning Objective: Explain classical conditioning.
Bloom’s: Understand
APA Outcome: 1.1: Describe key concepts, principles, and overarching themes in psychology
12) Which of the following is TRUE of unconditioned responses?
Answer: D
Difficulty: 2 Medium Page Ref: 163
Section: 15: Classical Conditioning
Topic: Classical Conditioning
Learning Objective: Explain classical conditioning.
Bloom’s: Understand
APA Outcome: 1.1: Describe key concepts, principles, and overarching themes in psychology
13) In Pavlov’s study, the unconditioned stimulus (UCS) was ________; the neutral stimulus was ________; and, finally, the conditioned stimulus (CS) was ________.
Answer: B
Difficulty: 2 Medium Page Ref: 163
Section: 15: Classical Conditioning
Topic: Classical Conditioning
Learning Objective: Explain classical conditioning.
Bloom’s: Understand
APA Outcome: 1.2: Develop a working knowledge of psychology’s content domains; 1.3: Describe applications of psychology
14) Classical conditioning is most successful when the neutral stimulus begins
Answer: A
Difficulty: 1 Easy Page Ref: 164
Section: 15: Classical Conditioning
Topic: Classical Conditioning
Learning Objective: Explain classical conditioning.
Bloom’s: Remember
APA Outcome: 1.2: Develop a working knowledge of psychology’s content domains; 1.3: Describe applications of psychology
15) Many people experience hunger pangs at the sight of McDonald’s golden arches. In the context of classical conditioning, the golden arches are a(n) ________ and the hunger pangs on seeing the arches are a(n) ________.
Answer: A
Difficulty: 2 Medium Page Ref: 165
Section: 15: Classical Conditioning
Topic: Applying Conditioning to Human Behavior
Learning Objective: Explain classical conditioning.
Bloom’s: Understand
APA Outcome: 1.1: Describe key concepts, principles, and overarching themes in psychology
16) Jonas is a veteran of the war in Iraq. He suffers from posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Now, back home in a quiet California neighborhood, he jumps when he hears a firecracker or a car backfire. In the terminology of classical conditioning, these sounds are best thought of as ________ stimuli.
Answer: C
Difficulty: 2 Medium Page Ref: 165
Section: 15: Classical Conditioning
Topic: Applying Conditioning to Human Behavior
Learning Objective: Explain classical conditioning.
Bloom’s: Apply
APA Outcome: 1.2: Develop a working knowledge of psychology’s content domains; 1.3: Describe applications of psychology
17) In the context of classical conditioning, which of the following actions is most likely to produce extinction?
Answer: B
Difficulty: 2 Medium Page Ref: 166
Section: 15: Classical Conditioning
Topic: Extinction
Learning Objective: Summarize the types of learning.
Bloom’s: Understand
APA Outcome: 1.1: Describe key concepts, principles, and overarching themes in psychology
18) In the context of classical conditioning, during extinction, a conditioned stimulus is
Answer: A
Difficulty: 2 Medium Page Ref: 166
Section: 15: Classical Conditioning
Topic: Extinction
Learning Objective: Explain classical conditioning.
Bloom’s: Understand
APA Outcome: 1.1: Describe key concepts, principles, and overarching themes in psychology
19) Danny visited the zoo with his parents. A week later, his grandparents took him to the zoo when he asked them. For the next few days, he kept asking his parents to take him to the zoo again. About two weeks later, he stopped asking to be taken to the zoo. The given scenario exemplifies
Answer: A
Difficulty: 3 Hard Page Ref: 166
Section: 15: Classical Conditioning
Topic: Extinction
Learning Objective: Explain classical conditioning.
Bloom’s: Apply
APA Outcome: 1.3: Describe applications of psychology
20) In classical conditioning, a conditioned stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus are presented together during
Answer: B
Difficulty: 1 Easy Page Ref: 166
Section: 15: Classical Conditioning
Topic: Classical Conditioning
Learning Objective: Explain classical conditioning.
Bloom’s: Remember
APA Outcome: 1.1: Describe key concepts, principles, and overarching themes in psychology
21) The reemergence of an extinguished conditioned response after a period of rest and with no further conditioning is known as
Answer: C
Difficulty: 1 Easy Page Ref: 167
Section: 15: Classical Conditioning
Topic: Spontaneous Recovery
Learning Objective: Explain classical conditioning.
Bloom’s: Remember
APA Outcome: 1.2: Develop a working knowledge of psychology’s content domains; 1.3: Describe applications of psychology
22) Every time 5-year-old Peter picked up his toys, his mother gave him a penny. After some time, she stopped giving him pennies to pick up his toys. Over the next few weeks, Peter gradually stopped asking for pennies. Three months later, when Peter picked up his toys, he asked his mother for a penny. In the given scenario, Peter asking for a penny after a period of 3 months exemplifies
Answer: C
Difficulty: 3 Hard Page Ref: 167
Section: 15: Classical Conditioning
Topic: Applying Conditioning to Human Behavior; Spontaneous Recovery
Learning Objective: Explain classical conditioning.
Bloom’s: Apply
APA Outcome: 1.3: Describe applications of psychology
23) ________ is a process in which, after a stimulus has been conditioned to produce a particular response, stimuli that are similar to the original stimulus produce the same response.
Answer: B
Difficulty: 1 Easy Page Ref: 167
Section: 15: Classical Conditioning
Topic: Generalization
Learning Objective: Explain classical conditioning.
Bloom’s: Remember
APA Outcome: 1.2: Develop a working knowledge of psychology’s content domains
24) Which of the following is TRUE of stimulus generalization?
Answer: B
Difficulty: 2 Medium Page Ref: 167
Section: 15: Classical Conditioning
Topic: Generalization
Learning Objective: Explain classical conditioning.
Bloom’s: Understand
APA Outcome: 1.2: Develop a working knowledge of psychology’s content domains
25) Which of the following scenarios exemplifies stimulus generalization?
Answer: B
Difficulty: 3 Hard Page Ref: 167
Section: 15: Classical Conditioning
Topic: Generalization
Learning Objective: Explain classical conditioning.
Bloom’s: Apply
APA Outcome: 1.3: Describe applications of psychology
26) Ramona takes her 4-year-old daughter to a park. While her daughter plays in the sand pit, Ramona sits and chats with her friends. When she hears two girls fighting, she does not worry as she recognizes that it’s not her daughter’s voice. The given scenario illustrates
Answer: B
Difficulty: 3 Hard Page Ref: 167
Section: 15: Classical Conditioning
Topic: Discrimination
Learning Objective: Explain classical conditioning.
Bloom’s: Apply
APA Outcome: 1.3: Describe applications of psychology
27) June’s cat runs to the kitchen at the sound of the electric can opener, which she has learned is used to open her food when her dinner is about to be served. The cat does not run when a blender is used, although it sounds similar. June’s cat is demonstrating stimulus
Answer: B
Difficulty: 2 Medium Page Ref: 167
Section: 15: Classical Conditioning
Topic: Discrimination
Learning Objective: Explain classical conditioning.
Bloom’s: Apply
APA Outcome: 1.2: Develop a working knowledge of psychology’s content domains
28) When Mathew was a child, he ate some red berries from his garden. He fell violently sick after eating them. Now, he refuses to eat any red-colored fruits. In the context of classical conditioning, the given scenario illustrates
Answer: C
Difficulty: 3 Hard Page Ref: 167
Section: 15: Classical Conditioning
Topic: Generalization
Learning Objective: Explain classical conditioning.
Bloom’s: Apply
APA Outcome: 1.3: Describe applications of psychology
29) Which of the following statements is TRUE of learned taste aversion?
Answer: B
Difficulty: 2 Medium Page Ref: 168
Section: 15: Classical Conditioning
Topic: Classical Conditioning
Learning Objective: Explain classical conditioning.
Bloom’s: Understand
APA Outcome: 1.1: Describe key concepts, principles, and overarching themes in psychology
30) In what way does learned taste aversion not seem to follow the basic principles of classical conditioning?
Answer: B
Difficulty: 2 Medium Page Ref: 168
Section: 15: Classical Conditioning
Topic: Classical Conditioning
Learning Objective: Explain classical conditioning.
Bloom’s: Understand
APA Outcome: 1.2: Develop a working knowledge of psychology’s content domains
31) ________ is learning in which a voluntary response is strengthened or weakened, depending on its favorable or unfavorable consequences.
Answer: B
Difficulty: 1 Easy Page Ref: 170
Section: 16: Operant Conditioning
Topic: Operant Conditioning
Learning Objective: Explain operant conditioning.
Bloom’s: Remember
APA Outcome: 1.2: Develop a working knowledge of psychology’s content domains
32) Operant conditioning most importantly involves forming associations between
Answer: C
Difficulty: 2 Medium Page Ref: 170
Section: 16: Operant Conditioning
Topic: Operant Conditioning
Learning Objective: Explain operant conditioning.
Bloom’s: Understand
APA Outcome: 1.2: Develop a working knowledge of psychology’s content domains; 1.3: Describe applications of psychology
33) In operant conditioning, an organism
Answer: A
Difficulty: 2 Medium Page Ref: 170
Section: 16: Operant Conditioning
Topic: Operant Conditioning
Learning Objective: Explain operant conditioning.
Bloom’s: Understand
APA Outcome: 1.1: Describe key concepts, principles, and overarching themes in psychology
34) The root of operant conditioning may be traced to ________’s early studies of hungry cats learning to escape from cages.
Answer: B
Difficulty: 1 Easy Page Ref: 170
Section: 16: Operant Conditioning
Topic: Thorndike’s Law of Effect
Learning Objective: Explain operant conditioning.
Bloom’s: Remember
APA Outcome: 1.2: Develop a working knowledge of psychology’s content domains
35) “Responses that lead to satisfying consequences are more likely to be repeated.” This is the law of
Answer: C
Difficulty: 1 Easy Page Ref: 171
Section: 16: Operant Conditioning
Topic: Thorndike’s Law of Effect
Learning Objective: Explain operant conditioning.
Bloom’s: Remember
APA Outcome: 1.2: Develop a working knowledge of psychology’s content domains; 1.3: Describe applications of psychology
36) The most influential psychologist to study operant conditioning was
Answer: D
Difficulty: 1 Easy Page Ref: 171
Section: 16: Operant Conditioning
Topic: Operant Conditioning
Learning Objective: Explain operant conditioning.
Bloom’s: Remember
APA Outcome: 1.2: Develop a working knowledge of psychology’s content domains
37) The process by which a stimulus increases the likelihood that a preceding behavior will be repeated is called
Answer: B
Difficulty: 1 Easy Page Ref: 172
Section: 16: Operant Conditioning
Topic: Reinforcement
Learning Objective: Explain operant conditioning.
Bloom’s: Remember
APA Outcome: 1.2: Develop a working knowledge of psychology’s content domains; 1.3: Describe applications of psychology
38) Which of the following statements is TRUE of primary reinforcers?
Answer: B
Difficulty: 2 Medium Page Ref: 172
Section: 16: Operant Conditioning
Topic: Reinforcement
Learning Objective: Explain operant conditioning.
Bloom’s: Understand
APA Outcome: 1.1: Describe key concepts, principles, and overarching themes in psychology
39) A ________ is any stimulus that increases the probability that a preceding behavior will occur again.
Answer: C
Difficulty: 1 Easy Page Ref: 172
Section: 16: Operant Conditioning
Topic: Reinforcement
Learning Objective: Explain operant conditioning.
Bloom’s: Remember
APA Outcome: 1.2: Develop a working knowledge of psychology’s content domains; 1.3: Describe applications of psychology
40) Reinforcers that satisfy a biological need are called ________ reinforcers.
Answer: A
Difficulty: 1 Easy Page Ref: 172
Section: 16: Operant Conditioning
Topic: Reinforcement
Learning Objective: Explain operant conditioning.
Bloom’s: Remember
APA Outcome: 1.2: Develop a working knowledge of psychology’s content domains; 1.3: Describe applications of psychology
41) In the context of operant conditioning, which of the following is TRUE of reinforcement?
Answer: D
Difficulty: 2 Medium Page Ref: 172
Section: 16: Operant Conditioning
Topic: Reinforcement
Learning Objective: Explain operant conditioning.
Bloom’s: Understand
APA Outcome: 1.1: Describe key concepts, principles, and overarching themes in psychology
42) Caroline is playing in the snow in her yard. Her father calls her to come inside the house as it is getting late. Caroline does not want to go inside and ignores her father. After a while, she starts to feel cold and goes inside the house to keep warm. In the given scenario, the feeling of warmth is a
Answer: B
Difficulty: 3 Hard Page Ref: 172
Section: 16: Operant Conditioning
Topic: Reinforcement
Learning Objective: Explain operant conditioning.
Bloom’s: Apply
APA Outcome: 1.3: Describe applications of psychology
43) Noah’s mother gives him a dollar every Friday evening if he finishes his chores for the week without being reminded. He diligently finishes his chores every week, and he uses the money to buy candies over the weekend. In the given scenario, the weekly allowance acts as a(n)
Answer: A
Difficulty: 3 Hard Page Ref: 172
Section: 16: Operant Conditioning
Topic: Reinforcement
Learning Objective: Explain operant conditioning.
Bloom’s: Apply
APA Outcome: 1.3: Describe applications of psychology
44) The term reward is associated with
Answer: A
Difficulty: 2 Medium Page Ref: 172
Section: 16: Operant Conditioning
Topic: Reinforcement
Learning Objective: Explain operant conditioning.
Bloom’s: Remember
APA Outcome: 1.2: Develop a working knowledge of psychology’s content domains; 1.3: Describe applications of psychology
45) Cabe pulls a muscle in his leg. His doctor asks him to apply ice on the injury. Even though he does not like to apply cold packs, Cabe does it because he feels instant relief from the pain. In the given scenario, the relief from pain is a
Answer: C
Difficulty: 3 Hard Page Ref: 173
Section: 16: Operant Conditioning
Topic: Reinforcement
Learning Objective: Explain operant conditioning.
Bloom’s: Apply
APA Outcome: 1.3: Describe applications of psychology
46) As part of a behavior modification program, Kendra and her partner each agree to praise the other if they complete their assigned household chores by the end of the day. Such praise is an example of
Answer: C
Difficulty: 2 Medium Page Ref: 173
Section: 16: Operant Conditioning
Topic: Reinforcement
Learning Objective: Explain operant conditioning.
Bloom’s: Understand
APA Outcome: 1.2: Develop a working knowledge of psychology’s content domains; 1.3: Describe applications of psychology
47) A(n) ________ reinforcer is a stimulus added to the environment, like getting paid to work, that specifically brings about an increase in a preceding response.
Answer: B
Difficulty: 1 Easy Page Ref: 173
Section: 16: Operant Conditioning
Topic: Reinforcement
Learning Objective: Explain operant conditioning.
Bloom’s: Remember
APA Outcome: 1.2: Develop a working knowledge of psychology’s content domains; 1.3: Describe applications of psychology
48) A(n) ________ reinforcer refers to the removal of an unpleasant stimulus, putting on a sweater when you’re cold for example, which leads to an increase in the probability that a preceding response will be repeated in the future.
Answer: A
Difficulty: 1 Easy Page Ref: 173
Section: 16: Operant Conditioning
Topic: Reinforcement
Learning Objective: Explain operant conditioning.
Bloom’s: Remember
APA Outcome: 1.2: Develop a working knowledge of psychology’s content domains; 1.3: Describe applications of psychology
49) Dr. Isonzo notices several students nodding in agreement as he lectures. Subsequently, his rhetoric becomes more confident and more passionate. The students have provided ________ reinforcement.
Answer: A
Difficulty: 2 Medium Page Ref: 173
Section: 16: Operant Conditioning
Topic: Reinforcement
Learning Objective: Explain operant conditioning.
Bloom’s: Apply
APA Outcome: 1.2: Develop a working knowledge of psychology’s content domains; 1.3: Describe applications of psychology
50) Which of the following statements is TRUE of negative reinforcement?
Answer: B
Difficulty: 2 Medium Page Ref: 173
Section: 16: Operant Conditioning
Topic: Reinforcement
Learning Objective: Explain operant conditioning.
Bloom’s: Understand
APA Outcome: 1.1: Describe key concepts, principles, and overarching themes in psychology
51) Which of the following scenarios exemplifies negative reinforcement?
Answer: A
Difficulty: 2 Medium Page Ref: 173
Section: 16: Operant Conditioning
Topic: Reinforcement
Learning Objective: Explain operant conditioning.
Bloom’s: Apply
APA Outcome: 1.2: Develop a working knowledge of psychology’s content domains; 1.3: Describe applications of psychology
52) ________ weakens a response through the application of an unpleasant stimulus.
Answer: C
Difficulty: 1 Easy Page Ref: 173
Section: 16: Operant Conditioning
Topic: Punishment
Learning Objective: Explain operant conditioning.
Bloom’s: Remember
APA Outcome: 1.2: Develop a working knowledge of psychology’s content domains; 1.3: Describe applications of psychology
53) Which of the following scenarios exemplify negative punishment?
Answer: A
Difficulty: 2 Medium Page Ref: 173
Section: 16: Operant Conditioning
Topic: Punishment
Learning Objective: Explain operant conditioning.
Bloom’s: Apply
APA Outcome: 1.2: Develop a working knowledge of psychology’s content domains; 1.3: Describe applications of psychology
54) Which of the following is an example of positive punishment?
Answer: B
Difficulty: 2 Medium Page Ref: 173
Section: 16: Operant Conditioning
Topic: Punishment
Learning Objective: Explain operant conditioning.
Bloom’s: Apply
APA Outcome: 1.2: Develop a working knowledge of psychology’s content domains; 1.3: Describe applications of psychology
55) Sheryl’s parents have told her that she is “grounded” and will not be allowed to watch any television for a week, because she is not completing her assignments on time. This is an example of
Answer: A
Difficulty: 2 Medium Page Ref: 173
Section: 16: Operant Conditioning
Topic: Punishment
Learning Objective: Explain operant conditioning.
Bloom’s: Apply
APA Outcome: 1.2: Develop a working knowledge of psychology’s content domains; 1.3: Describe applications of psychology
56) Which of the following is an example of negative punishment?
Answer: D
Difficulty: 2 Medium Page Ref: 173
Section: 16: Operant Conditioning
Topic: Punishment
Learning Objective: Explain operant conditioning.
Bloom’s: Apply
APA Outcome: 1.2: Develop a working knowledge of psychology’s content domains; 1.3: Describe applications of psychology
57) Which of the following types of consequences is correctly matched with an example?
Answer: C
Difficulty: 1 Easy Page Ref: 173
Section: 16: Operant Conditioning
Topic: Punishment
Learning Objective: Explain operant conditioning.
Bloom’s: Understand
APA Outcome: 1.2: Develop a working knowledge of psychology’s content domains; 1.3: Describe applications of psychology
58) Identify the type of consequence that is correctly matched with an example.
Answer: B
Difficulty: 2 Medium Page Ref: 173
Section: 16: Operant Conditioning
Topic: Reinforcement
Learning Objective: Explain operant conditioning.
Bloom’s: Understand
APA Outcome: 1.2: Develop a working knowledge of psychology’s content domains; 1.3: Describe applications of psychology
59) Which of the following is a disadvantage of punishment?
Answer: D
Difficulty: 2 Medium Page Ref: 174
Section: 16: Operant Conditioning
Topic: Punishment
Learning Objective: Explain operant conditioning.
Bloom’s: Understand
APA Outcome: 1.1: Describe key concepts, principles, and overarching themes in psychology
60) In the context of operant conditioning, which of the following statements is TRUE of reinforcement?
Answer: D
Difficulty: 2 Medium Page Ref: 175
Section: 16: Operant Conditioning
Topic: Schedules of Reinforcement
Learning Objective: Explain operant conditioning.
Bloom’s: Understand
APA Outcome: 1.1: Describe key concepts, principles, and overarching themes in psychology
61) You don’t receive a smile or a “thank you” each time you hold a door for the person behind you. It is acknowledged sometimes. Door-holding is reinforced on a(n) ________ reinforcement schedule.
Answer: B
Difficulty: 1 Easy Page Ref: 175
Section: 16: Operant Conditioning
Topic: Schedules of Reinforcement
Learning Objective: Explain operant conditioning.
Bloom’s: Apply
APA Outcome: 1.2: Develop a working knowledge of psychology’s content domains; 1.3: Describe applications of psychology
62) Vending machine is to slot machine what ________ reinforcement is to ________ reinforcement.
Answer: B
Difficulty: 2 Medium Page Ref: 175
Section: 16: Operant Conditioning
Topic: Schedules of Reinforcement
Learning Objective: Explain operant conditioning.
Bloom’s: Understand
APA Outcome: 1.2: Develop a working knowledge of psychology’s content domains; 1.3: Describe applications of psychology
63) A fixed-ratio schedule is a schedule
Answer: A
Difficulty: 1 Easy Page Ref: 176
Section: 16: Operant Conditioning
Topic: Schedules of Reinforcement
Learning Objective: Explain operant conditioning.
Bloom’s: Remember
APA Outcome: 1.2: Develop a working knowledge of psychology’s content domains; 1.3: Describe applications of psychology
64) Which of the following promotions exemplifies the use of a fixed-ratio schedule of reinforcement?
Answer: B
Difficulty: 2 Medium Page Ref: 176
Section: 16: Operant Conditioning
Topic: Schedules of Reinforcement
Learning Objective: Explain operant conditioning.
Bloom’s: Apply
APA Outcome: 1.2: Develop a working knowledge of psychology’s content domains; 1.3: Describe applications of psychology
65) Dr. Arceneaux wants his students to take advantage of online practice quizzes on his course site. Which of the following is the most effective plan to increase the number of practice quizzes completed?
Answer: A
Difficulty: 2 Medium Page Ref: 176
Section: 16: Operant Conditioning
Topic: Schedules of Reinforcement
Learning Objective: Explain operant conditioning.
Bloom’s: Apply
APA Outcome: 1.2: Develop a working knowledge of psychology’s content domains; 1.3: Describe applications of psychology
66) A variable-ratio schedule is a schedule
Answer: B
Difficulty: 1 Easy Page Ref: 176
Section: 16: Operant Conditioning
Topic: Schedules of Reinforcement
Learning Objective: Explain operant conditioning.
Bloom’s: Remember
APA Outcome: 1.2: Develop a working knowledge of psychology’s content domains; 1.3: Describe applications of psychology
67) Dr. Arceneaux has developed several alternative plans to increase the number of online practice quizzes his students complete. Which plan below is INCORRECTLY matched with the related schedule?
Answer: D
Difficulty: 2 Medium Page Ref: 176
Section: 16: Operant Conditioning
Topic: Schedules of Reinforcement
Learning Objective: Explain operant conditioning.
Bloom’s: Understand
APA Outcome: 1.2: Develop a working knowledge of psychology’s content domains; 1.3: Describe applications of psychology
68) Mandy has a habit of buying lottery tickets every day. She won her first lottery when she was a freshman in college. Three months after her first win, she won another lottery. She won her third lottery two years later when she was a junior. She wants to stop buying tickets but cannot resist doing so as her winnings act as reinforcement for her buying behavior. In the context of operant conditioning, which of the following reinforcement schedules do the lottery winnings illustrate?
Answer: B
Difficulty: 3 Hard Page Ref: 176
Section: 16: Operant Conditioning
Topic: Schedules of Reinforcement
Learning Objective: Explain operant conditioning.
Bloom’s: Apply
APA Outcome: 1.3: Describe applications of psychology
69) The schedules of reinforcement that yield the highest response rates are
Answer: C
Difficulty: 1 Easy Page Ref: 176
Section: 16: Operant Conditioning
Topic: Schedules of Reinforcement
Learning Objective: Explain operant conditioning.
Bloom’s: Remember
APA Outcome: 1.1: Describe key concepts, principles, and overarching themes in psychology
70) Typically, long pauses in responding are found in ________ schedules.
Answer: A
Difficulty: 2 Medium Page Ref: 176
Section: 16: Operant Conditioning
Topic: Schedules of Reinforcement
Learning Objective: Explain operant conditioning.
Bloom’s: Understand
APA Outcome: 1.2: Develop a working knowledge of psychology’s content domains; 1.3: Describe applications of psychology
71) Which of the following statements is TRUE of variable-interval schedules?
Answer: D
Difficulty: 2 Medium Page Ref: 176
Section: 16: Operant Conditioning
Topic: Schedules of Reinforcement
Learning Objective: Explain operant conditioning.
Bloom’s: Understand
APA Outcome: 1.1: Describe key concepts, principles, and overarching themes in psychology
72) Emma is a video-game programmer. She writes the code for a game in which players are awarded five points every time they complete three tasks in the game. The players are also awarded five points at midnight every day. In the context of operant conditioning, the award of five points follows the ________ of reinforcement.
Answer: A
Difficulty: 3 Hard Page Ref: 176-177
Section: 16: Operant Conditioning
Topic: Schedules of Reinforcement
Learning Objective: Explain operant conditioning.
Bloom’s: Apply
APA Outcome: 1.3: Describe applications of psychology
73) A privately funded program pays low-income parents $50 every two months for each child who attends school regularly during that period. This incentive illustrates a ________ schedule of reinforcement.
Answer: A
Difficulty: 2 Medium Page Ref: 177
Section: 16: Operant Conditioning
Topic: Schedules of Reinforcement
Learning Objective: Explain operant conditioning.
Bloom’s: Apply
APA Outcome: 1.2: Develop a working knowledge of psychology’s content domains; 1.3: Describe applications of psychology
74) A fixed-interval schedule is a schedule
Answer: C
Difficulty: 1 Easy Page Ref: 177
Section: 16: Operant Conditioning
Topic: Schedules of Reinforcement
Learning Objective: Explain operant conditioning.
Bloom’s: Remember
APA Outcome: 1.2: Develop a working knowledge of psychology’s content domains; 1.3: Describe applications of psychology
75) Maggie works in a garment manufacturing company. For every three blouses she stitches, she is paid five dollars. Such a payment schedule is an example of a ________ of reinforcement.
Answer: A
Difficulty: 3 Hard Page Ref: 176
Section: 16: Operant Conditioning
Topic: Schedules of Reinforcement
Learning Objective: Explain operant conditioning.
Bloom’s: Apply
APA Outcome: 1.3: Describe applications of psychology
76) Jamie plays an adventure video game in which a magic sword appears sometimes to help him score more points. The appearance of the sword is not dependent on Jamie’s performance in the game. He does not know when the sword will appear, so he is always prepared to grab it. In the context of operant conditioning, the appearance of the magic sword illustrates a ________ of reinforcement.
Answer: D
Difficulty: 3 Hard Page Ref: 177
Section: 16: Operant Conditioning
Topic: Schedules of Reinforcement
Learning Objective: Explain operant conditioning.
Bloom’s: Apply
APA Outcome: 1.3: Describe applications of psychology
77) Which of the following is TRUE about stimulus control training?
Answer: A
Difficulty: 1 Easy Page Ref: 177
Section: 16: Operant Conditioning
Topic: Generalization; Discrimination
Learning Objective: Explain operant conditioning.
Bloom’s: Remember
APA Outcome: 1.2: Develop a working knowledge of psychology’s content domains
78) Ewan is convinced that a woman across the bar is “sending signals.” A theorist who studies operant conditioning would term such signals
Answer: B
Difficulty: 2 Medium Page Ref: 178
Section: 16: Operant Conditioning
Topic: Generalization; Discrimination
Learning Objective: Explain operant conditioning.
Bloom’s: Apply
APA Outcome: 1.2: Develop a working knowledge of psychology’s content domains; 1.3: Describe applications of psychology
79) Behaving negatively toward all members of a racial group because one has had an unpleasant experience with one member of that group is an example of
Answer: B
Difficulty: 1 Easy Page Ref: 178
Section: 15: Classical Conditioning
Topic: Generalization
Learning Objective: Explain classical conditioning.
Bloom’s: Remember
APA Outcome: 1.1: Describe key concepts, principles, and overarching themes in psychology
80) Sheryl makes pleasant small talk and pays her boss a compliment before asking for a personal day because such a strategy was successful with a few of her previous bosses. This example most clearly illustrates
Answer: A
Difficulty: 2 Medium Page Ref: 178
Section: 16: Operant Conditioning
Topic: Generalization
Learning Objective: Explain operant conditioning.
Bloom’s: Apply
APA Outcome: 1.2: Develop a working knowledge of psychology’s content domains; 1.3: Describe applications of psychology
81) The process of teaching a complex behavior by reinforcing closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior is called
Answer: C
Difficulty: 1 Easy Page Ref: 178
Section: 16: Operant Conditioning
Topic: Shaping
Learning Objective: Explain operant conditioning.
Bloom’s: Remember
APA Outcome: 1.2: Develop a working knowledge of psychology’s content domains
82) Mrs. Martin, a third-grade teacher, is instructing cursive writing. At first, she reinforces even crude attempts to reproduce letters with an encouraging word; as time goes on, though, she reinforces only well-formed letters. By reinforcing progressively better attempts at writing letters, Mrs. Martin is using
Answer: B
Difficulty: 2 Medium Page Ref: 178
Section: 16: Operant Conditioning
Topic: Shaping
Learning Objective: Explain operant conditioning.
Bloom’s: Apply
APA Outcome: 1.2: Develop a working knowledge of psychology’s content domains
83) Which of the following is a similarity between classical conditioning and operant conditioning?
Answer: B
Difficulty: 2 Medium Page Ref: 178
Section: 16: Operant Conditioning
Topic: Generalization; Classical Conditioning; Operant Conditioning
Learning Objective: Explain classical conditioning.; Explain operant conditioning.
Bloom’s: Understand
APA Outcome: 1.1: Describe key concepts, principles, and overarching themes in psychology
84) Which of the following types of learning applies to involuntary behavior?
Answer: B
Difficulty: 1 Easy Page Ref: 180
Section: 16: Operant Conditioning
Topic: Classical Conditioning
Learning Objective: Explain classical conditioning.
Bloom’s: Remember
APA Outcome: 1.1: Describe key concepts, principles, and overarching themes in psychology
85) Dr. Simonelli is a practicing behavior analyst. What does she do?
Answer: C
Difficulty: 2 Medium Page Ref: 181
Section: 16: Operant Conditioning
Topic: Behavior Modification
Learning Objective: Explain operant conditioning.
Bloom’s: Understand
APA Outcome: 1.2: Develop a working knowledge of psychology’s content domains
86) ________ is a technique for promoting the frequency of desirable conducts and decreasing the incidence of unwanted ones.
Answer: D
Difficulty: 1 Easy Page Ref: 181
Section: 16: Operant Conditioning
Topic: Behavior Modification
Learning Objective: Explain operant conditioning.
Bloom’s: Remember
APA Outcome: 1.2: Develop a working knowledge of psychology’s content domains; 2.2: Demonstrate psychology information literacy
87) When people start learning to drive a car, they already know the basic elements of driving from previous experience as passengers. It is likely that they have already noticed how the key is inserted into the ignition, the car is put in drive, and the gas pedal is pressed to make the car move forward. Acquiring knowledge of the basic elements of driving illustrates
Answer: A
Difficulty: 2 Medium Page Ref: 184
Section: 17: Cognitive Approaches to Learning
Topic: Latent Learning
Learning Objective: Identify cognitive factors in learning.
Bloom’s: Understand
APA Outcome: 1.1: Describe key concepts, principles, and overarching themes in psychology
88) The ________ is an approach to the study of learning that focuses on the thought processes that underlie learning.
Answer: C
Difficulty: 1 Easy Page Ref: 184
Section: 17: Cognitive Approaches to Learning
Topic: Cognitive Learning Theory
Learning Objective: Identify cognitive factors in learning.
Bloom’s: Remember
APA Outcome: 1.2: Develop a working knowledge of psychology’s content domains
89) Which of the following statements is TRUE of psychologists working from the cognitive learning perspective?
Answer: B
Difficulty: 2 Medium Page Ref: 184
Section: 17: Cognitive Approaches to Learning
Topic: Cognitive Learning Theory
Learning Objective: Identify cognitive factors in learning.
Bloom’s: Understand
APA Outcome: 1.1: Describe key concepts, principles, and overarching themes in psychology
90) According to the cognitive learning theory,
Answer: A
Difficulty: 2 Medium Page Ref: 184
Section: 17: Cognitive Approaches to Learning
Topic: Cognitive Learning Theory
Learning Objective: Identify cognitive factors in learning.
Bloom’s: Understand
APA Outcome: 1.1: Describe key concepts, principles, and overarching themes in psychology
91) According to classical conditioning, learning
Answer: A
Difficulty: 2 Medium Page Ref: 184
Section: 17: Cognitive Approaches to Learning
Topic: Classical Conditioning
Learning Objective: Explain classical conditioning.
Bloom’s: Understand
APA Outcome: 1.1: Describe key concepts, principles, and overarching themes in psychology
92) Learning in which a new behavior is acquired but is not demonstrated until some incentive is provided for displaying it is known as ________ learning.
Answer: B
Difficulty: 1 Easy Page Ref: 184
Section: 17: Cognitive Approaches to Learning
Topic: Latent Learning
Learning Objective: Explain observational learning.
Bloom’s: Remember
APA Outcome: 1.2: Develop a working knowledge of psychology’s content domains
93) Every Saturday, Adam takes the bus to the farmer’s market to buy fresh produce. One Sunday, the bus service is disrupted, and he decides to drive. He is not sure he knows the route to the market. However, when he starts driving, he realizes that he knows the route from his weekly bus rides. In the context of cognitive learning, Adam’s knowledge of the route to the farmer’s market demonstrates
Answer: D
Difficulty: 3 Hard Page Ref: 184
Section: 17: Cognitive Approaches to Learning
Topic: Latent Learning
Learning Objective: Explain observational learning.
Bloom’s: Apply
APA Outcome: 1.3: Describe applications of psychology
94) Identify a TRUE statement about latent learning.
Answer: A
Difficulty: 2 Medium Page Ref: 184
Section: 17: Cognitive Approaches to Learning
Topic: Latent Learning
Learning Objective: Explain observational learning.
Bloom’s: Understand
APA Outcome: 1.1: Describe key concepts, principles, and overarching themes in psychology
95) Recall Tolman and Honzik’s latent learning experiments in which rats learned to run through a maze. Rats that began to receive an incentive halfway through the experiment rapidly matched the performance of rats that had been reinforced from the beginning of the experiment. According to cognitive learning theorists, the reduction in errors indicated that the former group of rats
Answer: C
Difficulty: 2 Medium Page Ref: 185
Section: 17: Cognitive Approaches to Learning
Topic: Latent Learning
Learning Objective: Explain observational learning.
Bloom’s: Understand
APA Outcome: 2.1: Use scientific reasoning to interpret psychological phenomena
96) A(n) ________ is a mental representation of spatial locations and directions.
Answer: C
Difficulty: 1 Easy Page Ref: 185
Section: 17: Cognitive Approaches to Learning
Topic: Latent Learning
Learning Objective: Explain observational learning.
Bloom’s: Remember
APA Outcome: 1.2: Develop a working knowledge of psychology’s content domains
97) You have a kind of picture in your head of your hometown, a mental representation of its layout and the location of key landmarks, like rivers, buildings, freeways, and parks. This representation is called a(n)
Answer: C
Difficulty: 1 Easy Page Ref: 185
Section: 17: Cognitive Approaches to Learning
Topic: Latent Learning
Learning Objective: Explain observational learning.
Bloom’s: Apply
APA Outcome: 1.2: Develop a working knowledge of psychology’s content domains
98) Learning by watching the behavior of another person, or model, is known as
Answer: B
Difficulty: 1 Easy Page Ref: 186
Section: 17: Cognitive Approaches to Learning
Topic: Observational Learning
Learning Objective: Explain observational learning.
Bloom’s: Remember
APA Outcome: 1.2: Develop a working knowledge of psychology’s content domains
99) Albert Bandura’s perspective on learning is referred to as a(n) ________ approach to learning because of its reliance on observation of others.
Answer: B
Difficulty: 1 Easy Page Ref: 186
Section: 17: Cognitive Approaches to Learning
Topic: Observational Learning
Learning Objective: Explain observational learning.
Bloom’s: Remember
APA Outcome: 1.1: Describe key concepts, principles, and overarching themes in psychology
100) Which of the following types of learning is most appropriate for acquiring skills that cannot be learned by using trial-and-error methods without grave cost?
Answer: A
Difficulty: 1 Easy Page Ref: 186
Section: 17: Cognitive Approaches to Learning
Topic: Observational Learning
Learning Objective: Explain observational learning.
Bloom’s: Remember
APA Outcome: 1.1: Describe key concepts, principles, and overarching themes in psychology
101) Which of the following statements is TRUE of observational learning?
Answer: D
Difficulty: 2 Medium Page Ref: 186
Section: 17: Cognitive Approaches to Learning
Topic: Observational Learning
Learning Objective: Explain observational learning.
Bloom’s: Understand
APA Outcome: 1.1: Describe key concepts, principles, and overarching themes in psychology
102) Natasha is a 6-year-old girl who is afraid of dogs. However, when she notices her neighbors playing with their dogs, she wants to play with them too. She pets the dogs and soon plays with them. In the given scenario, Natasha exhibits
Answer: B
Difficulty: 3 Hard Page Ref: 186
Section: 17: Cognitive Approaches to Learning
Topic: Observational Learning
Learning Objective: Explain observational learning.
Bloom’s: Apply
APA Outcome: 1.3: Describe applications of psychology
103) Viewing violent media
Answer: C
Difficulty: 2 Medium Page Ref: 188
Section: 17: Cognitive Approaches to Learning
Topic: Observational Learning
Learning Objective: Explain observational learning.
Bloom’s: Understand
APA Outcome: 1.1: Describe key concepts, principles, and overarching themes in psychology
104) Exposure to media violence
Answer: B
Difficulty: 2 Medium Page Ref: 188
Section: 17: Cognitive Approaches to Learning
Topic: Observational Learning
Learning Objective: Explain observational learning.
Bloom’s: Understand
APA Outcome: 1.1: Describe key concepts, principles, and overarching themes in psychology
105) On his way home from the mall, Adrian, a 16-year-old, witnesses a fight breaking out next to him. He is accidentally hit and suffers a minor injury. However, the person standing next to him is critically injured. In the context of observational learning, which of the following is most likely to happen in the next couple of years?
Answer: B
Difficulty: 3 Hard Page Ref: 188
Section: 17: Cognitive Approaches to Learning
Topic: Observational Learning
Learning Objective: Explain observational learning.
Bloom’s: Apply
APA Outcome: 1.3: Describe applications of psychology
106) Travis is an intuitive thinker with a highly developed ability to remember verbal material, especially if it is highly relevant. Janet is detail-oriented, with an excellent memory for abstract material. She is not easily dissuaded by dull tasks. Which of the following statements best identifies the learning styles of these two individuals?
Answer: B
Difficulty: 2 Medium Page Ref: 189
Section: 17: Cognitive Approaches to Learning
Topic: Learning Styles
Learning Objective: Explain observational learning.
Bloom’s: Apply
APA Outcome: 1.2: Develop a working knowledge of psychology’s content domains
107) Which of the following CORRECTLY pairs a learning style with one of its characteristics?
Answer: A
Difficulty: 2 Medium Page Ref: 189
Section: 17: Cognitive Approaches to Learning
Topic: Learning Styles
Learning Objective: Explain observational learning.
Bloom’s: Understand
APA Outcome: 1.1: Describe key concepts, principles, and overarching themes in psychology
108) Which of the following is a characteristic of people with an analytical learning style?
Answer: B
Difficulty: 2 Medium Page Ref: 189
Section: 17: Cognitive Approaches to Learning
Topic: Learning Styles
Learning Objective: Explain observational learning.
Bloom’s: Understand
APA Outcome: 1.1: Describe key concepts, principles, and overarching themes in psychology
109) Neal, an Asian-American student, would most likely
Answer: A
Difficulty: 2 Medium Page Ref: 189-190
Section: 17: Cognitive Approaches to Learning
Topic: Learning Styles
Learning Objective: Explain observational learning.
Bloom’s: Apply
APA Outcome: 1.2: Develop a working knowledge of psychology’s content domains; 2.5: Incorporate sociocultural factors in scientific inquiry
110) Those with an analytical learning style
Answer: A
Difficulty: 2 Medium Page Ref: 190
Section: 17: Cognitive Approaches to Learning
Topic: Learning Styles
Learning Objective: Explain observational learning.
Bloom’s: Understand
APA Outcome: 1.1: Describe key concepts, principles, and overarching themes in psychology
111) ________ is a decline in the behavioral response following repeated exposure to the same stimulus.
Answer: Habituation
Difficulty: 1 Easy Page Ref: 162
Section: 15: Classical Conditioning
Topic: Classical Conditioning
Learning Objective: Explain classical conditioning.
Bloom’s: Remember
APA Outcome: 1.2: Develop a working knowledge of psychology’s content domains
112) In Pavlov’s study, the bell is both a(n) ________ stimulus and a conditioned stimulus.
Answer: neutral
Difficulty: 2 Medium Page Ref: 164
Section: 15: Classical Conditioning
Topic: Classical Conditioning
Learning Objective: Explain classical conditioning.
Bloom’s: Understand
APA Outcome: 1.3: Describe applications of psychology
113) A bright flash automatically causes us to blink. It is a(n) ________ response.
Answer: unconditioned
Difficulty: 1 Easy Page Ref: 163
Section: 15: Classical Conditioning
Topic: Applying Conditioning to Human Behavior
Learning Objective: Explain classical conditioning.
Bloom’s: Remember
APA Outcome: 1.3: Describe applications of psychology
114) ________ are intense, irrational fears.
Answer: Phobias
Difficulty: 1 Easy Page Ref: 165
Section: 15: Classical Conditioning
Topic: Classical Conditioning
Learning Objective: Explain classical conditioning.
Bloom’s: Remember
APA Outcome: 1.3: Describe applications of psychology
115) ________ occurs when an extinguished conditioned response reappears after a period of rest and with no further conditioning.
Answer: Spontaneous recovery
Difficulty: 1 Easy Page Ref: 167
Section: 15: Classical Conditioning
Topic: Spontaneous Recovery
Learning Objective: Explain classical conditioning.
Bloom’s: Remember
APA Outcome: 1.2: Develop a working knowledge of psychology’s content domains; 1.3: Describe applications of psychology
116) Adam was badly stung by a bee when he was a child. Now he is frightened not only of bees but of all flying insects. This example illustrates ________.
Answer: stimulus generalization
Difficulty: 2 Medium Page Ref: 167
Section: 15: Classical Conditioning
Topic: Generalization
Learning Objective: Explain classical conditioning.
Bloom’s: Apply
APA Outcome: 1.2: Develop a working knowledge of psychology’s content domains
117) Olympia consumed some poorly stored sushi on a hot day; she became violently ill. Now Olympia can’t stand the sight of sushi. She has developed a(n) ________.
Answer: learned taste aversion
Difficulty: 2 Medium Page Ref: 168
Section: 15: Classical Conditioning
Topic: Classical Conditioning
Learning Objective: Explain classical conditioning.
Bloom’s: Apply
APA Outcome: 1.2: Develop a working knowledge of psychology’s content domains
118) A stimulus that increases the probability that a preceding behavior will occur again is termed a(n) ________.
Answer: reinforcer
Difficulty: 1 Easy Page Ref: 172
Section: 16: Operant Conditioning
Topic: Reinforcement
Learning Objective: Explain operant conditioning.
Bloom’s: Remember
APA Outcome: 1.2: Develop a working knowledge of psychology’s content domains; 1.3: Describe applications of psychology
119) Money is an example of a(n) ________ reinforcer.
Answer: secondary
Difficulty: 1 Easy Page Ref: 172
Section: 16: Operant Conditioning
Topic: Reinforcement
Learning Objective: Explain operant conditioning.
Bloom’s: Remember
APA Outcome: 1.2: Develop a working knowledge of psychology’s content domains; 1.3: Describe applications of psychology
120) Positive punishment ________ a response through the application of an unpleasant stimulus.
Answer: weakens
Difficulty: 2 Medium Page Ref: 173
Section: 16: Operant Conditioning
Topic: Punishment
Learning Objective: Explain operant conditioning.
Bloom’s: Understand
APA Outcome: 1.2: Develop a working knowledge of psychology’s content domains
121) A weekly paycheck is an example of a(n) ________ schedule.
Answer: fixed-interval
Difficulty: 2 Medium Page Ref: 177
Section: 16: Operant Conditioning
Topic: Reinforcement
Learning Objective: Outline the schedules of reinforcement and define the operant view of generalization and discrimination, superstitious behavior, and shaping.
Bloom’s: Understand
APA Outcome: 1.2: Develop a working knowledge of psychology’s content domains
122) When a behavior is reinforced in the presence of a specific stimulus, but not in its absence it is known as ________ training.
Answer: stimulus control
Difficulty: 1 Easy Page Ref: 178
Section: 16: Operant Conditioning
Topic: Discrimination
Learning Objective: Explain operant conditioning.
Bloom’s: Remember
APA Outcome: 1.2: Develop a working knowledge of psychology’s content domains
123) When your partner says, “I’m going up to bed early,” you follow expectantly. When he or she says, “I’m tired,” you stay behind and say you’ll read in the living room for a while. This is an example of a ________ stimulus.
Answer: discriminative
Difficulty: 2 Medium Page Ref: 178
Section: 16: Operant Conditioning
Topic: Discrimination
Learning Objective: Explain operant conditioning.
Bloom’s: Apply
APA Outcome: 1.2: Develop a working knowledge of psychology’s content domains
124) Shaping is one way that organisms learn ________ behavior.
Answer: complex
Difficulty: 2 Medium Page Ref: 178
Section: 16: Operant Conditioning
Topic: Shaping
Learning Objective: Explain operant conditioning.
Bloom’s: Understand
APA Outcome: 1.2: Develop a working knowledge of psychology’s content domains
125) Dr. Margate specializes in using behavior modification techniques to help adults engage in health-promoting behaviors, such as exercising, quitting smoking, and so forth. Dr. Margate is a behavior ________.
Answer: analyst
Difficulty: 2 Medium Page Ref: 181
Section: 16: Operant Conditioning
Topic: Behavior Modification
Learning Objective: Explain operant conditioning.
Bloom’s: Apply
APA Outcome: 1.2: Develop a working knowledge of psychology’s content domains; 2.2: Demonstrate psychology information literacy
126) In the latent learning study described in the text, the rats that were reinforced only during the latter portion of the experiment would be considered a(n) ________ group.
Answer: experimental
Difficulty: 2 Medium Page Ref: 184
Section: 17: Cognitive Approaches to Learning
Topic: Latent Learning
Learning Objective: Explain observational learning.
Bloom’s: Understand
APA Outcome: 2.2: Demonstrate psychology information literacy
127) In observational learning, the person whose behavior is observed is termed the ________.
Answer: model
Difficulty: 1 Easy Page Ref: 186
Section: 17: Cognitive Approaches to Learning
Topic: Observational Learning
Learning Objective: Explain observational learning.
Bloom’s: Remember
APA Outcome: 1.2: Develop a working knowledge of psychology’s content domains
128) Mother animals teaching their young such activities as hunting is an example of ________.
Answer: observational learning
Difficulty: 1 Easy Page Ref: 193
Section: 17: Cognitive Approaches to Learning
Topic: Observational Learning
Learning Objective: Explain observational learning.
Bloom’s: Remember
APA Outcome: 1.1: Describe key concepts, principles, and overarching themes in psychology
129) ________ are neurons that fire when we observe another person’s behavior.
Answer: Mirror neurons
Difficulty: 1 Easy Page Ref: 186
Section: 17: Cognitive Approaches to Learning
Topic: Observational Learning
Learning Objective: Explain observational learning.
Bloom’s: Remember
APA Outcome: 1.2: Develop a working knowledge of psychology’s content domains
130) Although a “phonics” approach to reading instruction might capitalize on an analytic learning style, the “whole-word” approach may be better suited to a(n) ________ learning style.
Answer: relational
Difficulty: 1 Easy Page Ref: 189
Section: 17: Cognitive Approaches to Learning
Topic: Learning Styles
Learning Objective: Explain observational learning.
Bloom’s: Understand
APA Outcome: 1.2: Develop a working knowledge of psychology’s content domains
131) Explain classical conditioning with a suitable example.
Answer: Students’ examples may vary.
Classical conditioning is a type of learning in which a neutral stimulus comes to elicit a response after being paired with a stimulus that naturally brings about that response.
To demonstrate classical conditioning, Pavlov attached a tube to the salivary gland of a dog, allowing him to measure precisely the dog’s salivation. He then rang a bell and, just a few seconds later, presented the dog with meat. This pairing occurred repeatedly and was carefully planned so that, each time, exactly the same amount of time elapsed between the presentation of the bell and the meat. At first the dog would salivate only when the meat was presented, but soon it began to salivate at the sound of the bell. In fact, even when Pavlov stopped presenting the meat, the dog still salivated after hearing the sound. The dog had been classically conditioned to salivate to the bell.
Difficulty: 2 Medium Page Ref: 163
Section: 15: Classical Conditioning
Topic: Classical Conditioning
Learning Objective: Explain classical conditioning.
Bloom’s: Understand
APA Outcome: 1.2: Develop a working knowledge of psychology’s content domains; 1.3: Describe applications of psychology
132) In the case of Pavlov and his dog, identify and describe the following: neutral stimulus, unconditioned stimulus, unconditioned response, conditioned stimulus, and conditioned response.
Answer: Before conditioning, there are two unrelated stimuli: the ringing of a bell and meat. We know that normally the ringing of a bell does not lead to salivation but to some irrelevant response, such as pricking up the ears or perhaps a startle reaction. The bell is therefore called the neutral stimulus, because it is a stimulus that, before conditioning, does not naturally bring about the response in which we are interested.
We also have meat, which naturally causes a dog to salivate—the response we are interested in conditioning. The meat is considered an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) because food placed in a dog’s mouth automatically causes salivation to occur. The response that the meat elicits (salivation) is called an unconditioned response (UCR) —a natural, innate, reflexive response that is not associated with previous learning.
Unconditioned responses are always brought about by the presence of unconditioned stimuli.
When conditioning is complete, the bell has evolved from a neutral stimulus to a conditioned stimulus (CS). At this time, salivation that occurs as a response to the conditioned stimulus (bell) is considered a conditioned response (CR). After conditioning, then, the conditioned stimulus evokes the conditioned response.
Difficulty: 2 Medium Page Ref: 163-164
Section: 15: Classical Conditioning
Topic: Classical Conditioning
Learning Objective: Explain classical conditioning.
Bloom’s: Understand
APA Outcome: 1.2: Develop a working knowledge of psychology’s content domains; 1.3: Describe applications of psychology
133) Making specific reference to such terms as UCS, CS, UCR, CR, and stimulus generalization, explain how classical conditioning may account for the development of a specific phobia.
Answer: The acquisition of a phobia begins with an unconditioned stimulus that reflexively elicits a startled, anxious, or fearful response. Such UCSs include loud noises, a loss of bodily support, and tissue damage. Neutral stimuli occurring along with the unconditioned stimulus may become conditioned stimuli, able to elicit a conditioned response of fear or anxiety. In Watson and Rayner’s “Little Albert” study, for example, a previously neutral white rat was presented along with an unconditioned stimulus of loud noise; Little Albert came to fear the rat. Through the process of stimulus generalization, fear or anxiety may be elicited not only by the original CS, but by similar stimuli as well; Little Albert, for example, became fearful of other white or furry objects in addition to rats.
Example: Fear of flying: A fear of flying may be seen as essentially a fear of falling, of the loss of bodily support. During a period of turbulence, a flight passenger may experience a dropping or plummeting sensation, an unconditioned stimulus eliciting an unconditioned fear response. Surrounding stimuli, such as the flight cabin, may act as conditioned stimuli capable of eliciting a conditioned fear response. This response may generalize to the airplane itself and to other stimuli associated with flying.
Difficulty: 2 Medium Page Ref: 164-165
Section: 15: Classical Conditioning
Topic: Applying Conditioning to Human Behavior
Learning Objective: Explain classical conditioning.
Bloom’s: Understand
APA Outcome: 1.3: Describe applications of psychology
134) Explain how classical conditioning hinders the treatment of drug addiction.
Answer: Students’ answers may vary.
Classical conditioning explains why drug addictions are so difficult to treat. Drug addicts learn to associate certain stimuli—such as drug paraphernalia such as a syringe or a room where they use drugs—with the pleasant feelings produced by the drugs. So simply seeing a syringe or entering a certain room can produce reactions associated with the drug and continued cravings for it.
Difficulty: 2 Medium Page Ref: 166
Section: 15: Classical Conditioning
Topic: Applying Conditioning to Human Behavior
Learning Objective: Explain classical conditioning.
Bloom’s: Understand
APA Outcome: 1.1: Describe key concepts, principles, and overarching themes in psychology
135) Explain the concept of extinction in classical conditioning.
Answer: Students’ answers may vary.
Extinction refers to a basic phenomenon of learning that occurs when a previously conditioned response decreases in frequency and eventually disappears. Extinction occurs when the conditioned stimulus is presented repeatedly without the unconditioned stimulus. To produce extinction, one needs to end the association between conditioned stimuli and unconditioned stimuli. For instance, if we had trained a dog to salivate (the conditioned response) at the ringing of a bell (the conditioned stimulus), we could produce extinction by repeatedly ringing the bell but not providing meat (the unconditioned stimulus). At first the dog would continue to salivate when it heard the bell, but after a few such instances, the amount of salivation would probably decline, and the dog would eventually stop responding to the bell altogether. At that point, we could say that the response had been extinguished. In sum, extinction occurs when the conditioned stimulus is presented repeatedly without the unconditioned stimulus.
Difficulty: 2 Medium Page Ref: 166-167
Section: 15: Classical Conditioning
Topic: Extinction
Learning Objective: Explain classical conditioning.
Bloom’s: Understand
APA Outcome: 1.1: Describe key concepts, principles, and overarching themes in psychology
136) What is spontaneous recovery in classical conditioning?
Answer: Students’ answers may vary.
Spontaneous recovery refers to the reemergence of an extinguished conditioned response after a period of rest and with no further conditioning. When the conditioned stimulus is presented repeatedly without the unconditioned stimulus, extinction occurs. However, once a conditioned response has been extinguished, it does not vanish forever. Pavlov discovered this phenomenon when he returned to his dog a few days after the conditioned behavior had seemingly been extinguished. If he rang a bell, the dog once again salivated—an effect known as spontaneous recovery, or the reemergence of an extinguished conditioned response after a period of time and with no further conditioning.
Difficulty: 2 Medium Page Ref: 167
Section: 15: Classical Conditioning
Topic: Spontaneous Recovery
Learning Objective: Explain classical conditioning.
Bloom’s: Understand
APA Outcome: 1.1: Describe key concepts, principles, and overarching themes in psychology
137) Briefly discuss stimulus generalization with an example.
Answer: Students’ answers may vary.
Stimulus generalization is a process in which after a stimulus has been conditioned to produce a particular response, other stimuli that are similar to the original stimulus produce the same response. The greater the similarity between two stimuli, the greater the likelihood of stimulus generalization. The conditioned response elicited by the new stimulus is usually not as intense as the original conditioned response, although the more similar the new stimulus is to the old one, the more similar the new response will be.
For example, a child who had been stung by a bee becomes afraid of all flying insects.
Difficulty: 2 Medium Page Ref: 167
Section: 15: Classical Conditioning
Topic: Generalization
Learning Objective: Explain classical conditioning.
Bloom’s: Understand
APA Outcome: 1.1: Describe key concepts, principles, and overarching themes in psychology
138) Explain stimulus discrimination with an example.
Answer: Students’ answers may vary.
Stimulus discrimination refers to the process that occurs if two stimuli are sufficiently distinct from one another such that one evokes a conditioned response but the other does not. Stimulus discrimination provides the ability to differentiate between stimuli. For example, our ability to discriminate between the behavior of a growling dog and that of one whose tail is wagging can lead to adaptive behavior—avoiding the growling dog and petting the friendly one.
Difficulty: 2 Medium Page Ref: 167
Section: 15: Classical Conditioning
Topic: Discrimination
Learning Objective: Explain classical conditioning.
Bloom’s: Understand
APA Outcome: 1.1: Describe key concepts, principles, and overarching themes in psychology
139) How have psychologists challenged Pavlov’s traditional account of classical conditioning?
Answer: Psychologists have challenged Pavlov’s original description of classical conditioning by suggesting that biology influences the ease with which associations may be conditioned.
Learning theorists influenced by cognitive psychology have argued that learners actively develop an understanding and expectancy about which particular unconditioned stimuli are matched with specific conditioned stimuli. A ringing bell, for instance, gives a dog something to think about: the impending arrival of food
Pavlov implied that all associations may be acquired with more or less equal ease. However, it appears that organisms are biologically prepared to learn certain associations more readily than others. One example is conditioned taste aversion. If a food makes an organism sick, the organism may acquire an association between stimuli associated with the food, such as its appearance or smell, and illness or nausea rapidly, perhaps after a single experience with illness following the food.
Difficulty: 2 Medium Page Ref: 168
Section: 15: Classical Conditioning
Topic: Classical Conditioning
Learning Objective: Explain classical conditioning.
Bloom’s: Understand
APA Outcome: 1.2: Develop a working knowledge of psychology’s content domains; 1.3: Describe applications of psychology
140) Briefly discuss the concept of learned taste aversion.
Answer: Students’ answers may vary.
Some organisms—including humans—are biologically prepared to quickly learn to avoid foods that smell or taste like something that made them sick. This is called learned taste aversion. For instance, a dog quickly learns to avoid rotting food that in the past made it sick. Similarly, if every time you ate peanuts you had an upset stomach several hours later, eventually you would learn to avoid peanuts. In fact, you might develop a learned taste aversion, when the taste of a particular food is associated with unpleasant symptoms such as nausea or vomiting. If you developed a taste aversion to peanuts, merely tasting (or even smelling or in more extreme cases seeing a peanut) could produce such disagreeable symptoms. Learned taste aversion can occur even when the interval between exposure to the conditioned stimulus of tainted food and the response of sickness is as long as 8 hours. Furthermore, the conditioning persists over very long periods and sometimes occurs after just one exposure.
Difficulty: 2 Medium Page Ref: 168
Section: 15: Classical Conditioning
Topic: Classical Conditioning
Learning Objective: Explain classical conditioning.
Bloom’s: Understand
APA Outcome: 1.1: Describe key concepts, principles, and overarching themes in psychology
141) Edward L. Thorndike formulated the law of effect after conducting an experiment on a cat in a puzzle box. Briefly describe the puzzle box that he used for the experiment.
Answer: Students’ answers may vary.
Edward L. Thorndike devised a puzzle box to study the process by which a cat learns to press a paddle to escape from the box and receive food. He placed a hungry cat in a cage and then put a small piece of food outside the cage, just beyond the cat’s reach. He rigged things so that the cat could escape by stepping on a small paddle that released the latch to the door of the cage. As it moved around the cage, the cat would happen to step on the paddle, the door would open, and the cat would eat the food. After a few trials, the cat would deliberately step on the paddle as soon as it was placed in the cage.
Difficulty: 2 Medium Page Ref: 170-171
Section: 16: Operant Conditioning
Topic: Thorndike’s Law of Effect
Learning Objective: Explain operant conditioning.
Bloom’s: Understand
APA Outcome: 1.1: Describe key concepts, principles, and overarching themes in psychology
142) Briefly discuss Edward L. Thorndike’s law of effect.
Answer: Students’ answers may vary.
Edward L. Thorndike formulated the law of effect, which states that responses that lead to satisfying consequences are more likely to be repeated.
He believed that the law of effect operates as automatically as leaves fall off a tree in autumn. It was not necessary for an organism to understand that there was a link between a response and a reward. Instead, Thorndike believed, over time and through experience, the organism would make a direct connection between the stimulus and the response without any awareness that the connection existed.
Difficulty: 2 Medium Page Ref: 171
Section: 16: Operant Conditioning
Topic: Thorndike’s Law of Effect
Learning Objective: Explain operant conditioning.
Bloom’s: Understand
APA Outcome: 1.1: Describe key concepts, principles, and overarching themes in psychology
143) Imagine that you are a parent, a teacher, or a supervisor in a workplace. Give specific examples of how you might use (a) positive reinforcement, (b) negative reinforcement, (c) positive punishment, and (d) negative punishment to bring about desirable changes in the behavior of a child, student, or subordinate worker.
Answer: Students’ examples may vary.
The answer might include examples such as the following:
Parent:
(a) Positive reinforcement. A parent may give a child money for completing household chores, thereby increasing the likelihood that he or she will complete chores in the future.
(b) Negative reinforcement. Following the exemplary completion of a series of chores, a parent might excuse the child from an odious chore he or she may have originally been expected to perform. The child may be more likely in the future to complete his or her chores.
(c)Positive punishment. A parent may reprimand a child harshly for hitting a sibling. The child should be less likely to hit the sibling in the future.
(d) Negative punishment. A parent may send a child to his or her room without dessert if the child throws a tantrum during the evening meal. The child should be less likely to throw tantrums in the future.
Teacher:
(a) Positive reinforcement. A teacher may praise a student for completing an assignment without errors, thereby increasing the likelihood that he or she will complete assignments correctly in the future.
(b) Negative reinforcement. A teacher may eliminate a homework assignment if recent homework has been completed in a timely and accurate fashion; the student’s performance may improve in the future as a result.
(c)Positive punishment. A teacher may write harsh comments on a carelessly done homework assignment, perhaps reducing the likelihood that assignments will be completed sloppily in the future.
(d) Negative punishment. A child may be forced to sit alone in a corner or in the cloakroom if he or she behaves aggressively toward classmates; aggressive behavior should decrease in the future as a result.
Supervisor:
(a) Positive reinforcement. A supervisor may give an employee a value card to a local restaurant or department store following a highly productive week, thereby encouraging future productivity.
(b) Negative reinforcement. A supervisor may grant an employee a personal day or an extended lunch hour for exemplary work performance, encouraging high performance in the future.
(c)Positive punishment. A supervisor may lecture an employee for making an off-color remark to another worker; the employee may be less likely to make such remarks in the future.
(d) Negative punishment. A supervisor may eliminate a perk such as free coffee when employees abuse workplace privileges. Workers should be less likely to abuse privileges in the future.
Difficulty: 2 Medium Page Ref: 173
Section: 16: Operant Conditioning
Topic: Reinforcement; Punishment
Learning Objective: Explain operant conditioning.
Bloom’s: Apply
APA Outcome: 1.3: Describe applications of psychology
144) What are the pros and cons of punishment?
Answer: Punishment often presents the quickest route to changing behavior that, if allowed to continue, might be dangerous to an individual. There are some rare instances in which punishment can be the most humane approach to treating certain severe disorders. For instance, a parent may not have a second chance to warn a child not to run into a busy street, and so punishing the first incidence of this behavior may prove to be wise. Moreover, the use of punishment to suppress behavior, even temporarily, provides an opportunity to reinforce a person for subsequently behaving in a more desirable way.
Punishment has several disadvantages that make its routine questionable. For one thing, punishment is frequently ineffective, particularly if it is not delivered shortly after the undesired behavior or if the individual is able to leave the setting in which the punishment is being given. Even worse, physical punishment can convey to the recipient the idea that physical aggression is permissible and perhaps even desirable. In addition, physical punishment is often administered by people who are themselves angry or enraged. It is unlikely that individuals in such an emotional state will be able to think through what they are doing or control carefully the degree of punishment they are inflicting. Finally, punishment does not convey any information about what an alternative, more appropriate behavior might be. To be useful in bringing about more desirable behavior in the future, punishment must be accompanied by specific information about the behavior that is being punished, along with specific suggestions concerning a more desirable behavior.
Difficulty: 2 Medium Page Ref: 174-175
Section: 16: Operant Conditioning
Topic: Punishment
Learning Objective: Explain operant conditioning.
Bloom’s: Understand
APA Outcome: 1.2: Develop a working knowledge of psychology’s content domains; 1.3: Describe applications of psychology
145) Explain why reinforcement is more effective than punishment.
Answer: Students’ answers may vary.
Punishment does not convey any information about what an alternative, more appropriate behavior might be. To be useful in bringing about more desirable behavior in the future, punishment must be accompanied by specific information about the behavior that is being punished, along with specific suggestions concerning a more desirable behavior. Punishing a child for staring out the window in school could merely lead her to stare at the floor instead. Unless we teach her appropriate ways to respond, we have merely managed to substitute one undesirable behavior for another. If punishment is not followed up with reinforcement for subsequent behavior that is more appropriate, little will be accomplished. That’s why the scientific research is clear: spanking is both ineffective and ultimately harmful to children. Even punishment in the form of yelling is damaging.
In short, reinforcing desired behavior is a more appropriate technique for modifying behavior than is using punishment. Both in and out of the scientific arena, then, reinforcement usually beats punishment.
Difficulty: 2 Medium Page Ref: 175
Section: 16: Operant Conditioning
Topic: Reinforcement; Punishment
Learning Objective: Explain operant conditioning.
Bloom’s: Understand
APA Outcome: 1.1: Describe key concepts, principles, and overarching themes in psychology
146) Compare the four schedules of intermittent reinforcement in operant conditioning. Discuss their impact on the response rate.
Answer: Students’ answers may vary.
In a fixed-ratio schedule, reinforcement is given only after a specific number of responses. For example, garment workers are generally paid on fixed-ratio schedules: They receive a specific number of dollars for every blouse they sew. Because a greater rate of production means more reinforcement, people on fixed-ratio schedules are apt to work as quickly as possible.
In a variable-ratio schedule, behaviors are reinforced after an average number of responses, but exactly when reinforcement will occur is unpredictable. A good example of a variable-ratio schedule is a telephone salesperson’s job. He might make a sale during the 3rd, 8th, 9th, and 20th calls without being successful during any call in between. Although the number of responses he must make before closing a sale varies, it averages out to a 20 percent success rate. Under these circumstances, you might expect that the salesperson would try to make as many calls as possible in as short a time as possible. This is the case with all variable-ratio schedules, which lead to a high rate of response and resistance to extinction.
A fixed-interval schedule is a schedule in which reinforcement is provided for a response only after a fixed time period has elapsed. Because a fixed-interval schedule provides reinforcement for a response only if a fixed time period has elapsed, overall rates of response are relatively low. This is especially true in the period just after reinforcement, when the time before another reinforcement is relatively great. Students’ study habits often exemplify this reality. If the periods between exams are relatively long (meaning that the opportunity for reinforcement for good performance is given fairly infrequently), students often study minimally or not at all until the day of the exam draws near. Just before the exam, however, students begin to cram for it, signaling a rapid increase in the rate of their studying response. As you might expect, immediately after the exam there is a rapid decline in the rate of responding, with few people opening a book the day after a test.
In a variable-interval schedule, the time between reinforcements varies around some average rather than being fixed. For example, a professor who gives surprise quizzes that vary from one every 3 days to one every 3 weeks, averaging one every 2 weeks, is using a variable-interval schedule. Compared to the study habits we observed with a fixed-interval schedule, students’ study habits under such a variable-interval schedule would most likely be very different. Students would be apt to study more regularly because they would never know when the next surprise quiz was coming. Variable-interval schedules, in general, are more likely to produce relatively steady rates of responding than are fixed-interval schedules, with responses that take longer to extinguish after reinforcement ends.
Difficulty: 2 Medium Page Ref: 176-177
Section: 16: Operant Conditioning
Topic: Schedules of Reinforcement
Learning Objective: Explain operant conditioning.
Bloom’s: Understand
APA Outcome: 1.1: Describe key concepts, principles, and overarching themes in psychology
147) Draw on your knowledge of positive and negative reinforcement, punishment, schedules of reinforcement, stimulus control training, discriminative stimuli, shaping, and biological constraints on learning to describe how you might use operant conditioning to train domestic animals (e.g., dogs, cats, horses, etc.) to perform desired behaviors.
Answer: Students’ answers may vary.
Positive reinforcement. We may reward a kitten with a cuddle when it begins to use its litter box.
Punishment. We may squirt a cat with water each time it climbs on the furniture or the curtains.
Schedules of reinforcement. When training a puppy to sit on command, we might reinforce it on a continuous schedule at first to facilitate the acquisition of the behavior; we may then fade the reinforcement schedule, reinforcing it on a fixed- or variable-ratio intermittent schedule to make the behavior resistant to extinction.
Stimulus control training and discriminative stimuli. We might wish to train a cat to use an outdoor litter box rather than a flower bed; we might reinforce the cat for using the box but punish it for using the flower bed.
Shaping. When training a puppy to sit on command, we might reinforce successive approximations to the desired behavior. For example, we might initially reinforce even fairly general squatting motions; later we might reinforce only a full sit.
Biological constraints on learning. We may take advantage of species-typical behaviors to train animals. Examples include the tendency of cats to bury their feces, the tendency of some breeds of dogs to burrow, and so on.
Difficulty: 2 Medium Page Ref: 173-178
Section: 16: Operant Conditioning
Topic: Reinforcement; Punishment; Schedules of Reinforcement; Shaping
Learning Objective: Explain operant conditioning.
Bloom’s: Understand
APA Outcome: 1.2: Develop a working knowledge of psychology’s content domains; 1.3: Describe applications of psychology
148) Identify a behavior of your own that you would like to perform more frequently (e.g., studying, completing household chores or yard work) or less frequently (e.g., snacking, smoking cigarettes). Outline a step-by-step behavior modification program that might help you achieve your goal.
Answer: The behavior students identify may differ.
Identifying goals and target behaviors. Define the desired behavior change and state goals and specific targets in observable, measurable terms. Example: Goal—to smoke fewer cigarettes; Target—to smoke no more than five cigarettes each day.
Designing a data-recording system and recording preliminary data. Collect baseline data. Example: record the number of cigarettes smoked each day for one week prior to attempting to change the behavior.
Selecting a behavior change strategy. Select strategies based on operant conditioning principles. More than one strategy should be used. For example, one might reward oneself with a desired activity (e.g., a phone call to a friend) each day that one meets the five-cigarette target. One might also reinforce activities incompatible with smoking cigarettes, such as visiting the gym.
Implementing the program. Apply the program consistently.
Keeping records. Monitor target behaviors. Example: record the number of cigarettes smoked each day; record the delivery of reinforcements, etc.
Evaluating and altering the ongoing program. Compare program data to the baseline data to determine the success of the program. If the program has been successful, it can be gradually faded; if it has not, changes may be made.
Difficulty: 2 Medium Page Ref: 181-182
Section: 16: Operant Conditioning
Topic: Behavior Modification
Learning Objective: Explain operant conditioning.
Bloom’s: Apply
APA Outcome: 1.3: Describe applications of psychology; 5.2: Exhibit self-efficacy and self-regulation
149) How do the phenomena of latent and observational learning force a reconsideration of the view of learning offered by classical and operant conditioning theorists?
Provide as thoughtful a response as you can.
Answer: Two key ideas should form the core of the
Answer: (1) latent and observational learning phenomena suggest that direct reinforcement may not be necessary for an individual to learn; and (2) latent and observational learning phenomena suggest that internal processes may be a necessary component of any complete explanation of learning.
In Tolman’s latent learning work, rats who began reinforcement for running a maze only halfway through the experiment rapidly matched the performance of rats who had been receiving reinforcement from the beginning, suggesting that they had been developing some internal representation of the maze all along. Reinforcement was not necessary for learning to occur; it was necessary only for the demonstration of learning in behavior. In Bandura’s “Bobo doll” experiments, children only needed to see a model reinforced for aggressive behavior to become more aggressive themselves. Observational learning is supported internally by networks of mirror neurons.
Difficulty: 2 Medium Page Ref: 184-186
Section: 16: Operant Conditioning
Topic: Observational Learning; Latent Learning
Learning Objective: Explain observational learning.
Bloom’s: Understand
APA Outcome: 1.2: Develop a working knowledge of psychology’s content domains; 1.3: Describe applications of psychology
150) Briefly describe observational learning and Bandura’s Bobo doll research. Discuss how this research altered conventional views of learning. What role might mirror neurons play in observational learning?
Answer: According to psychologist Albert Bandura and colleagues, a major part of human learning consists of observational learning, which is learning by watching the behavior of another person, or model. Because of its reliance on observation of others—a social phenomenon—the perspective taken by Bandura is often referred to as a social cognitive approach to learning. Observational learning is particularly important in acquiring skills in which the operant conditioning technique of shaping is inappropriate.
Observational learning may have a genetic basis. For example, we find observational learning at work with mother animals teaching their young such activities as hunting. In addition, the discovery of mirror neurons that fire when we observe another person carrying out a behavior suggests that the capacity to imitate others may be innate. Not all behavior that we witness is learned or carried out, of course. One crucial factor that determines whether we later imitate a model is whether the model is rewarded for his or her behavior. Models who are rewarded for behaving in a particular way are more apt to be mimicked than are models who receive punishment. Observing the punishment of a model, however, does not necessarily stop observers from learning the behavior. Observers can still describe the model’s behavior—they are just less apt to perform it.
Observational learning is central to a number of important issues relating to the extent to which people learn simply by watching the behavior of others.
Difficulty: 2 Medium Page Ref: 186
Section: 17: Cognitive Approaches to Learning
Topic: Observational Learning
Learning Objective: Explain observational learning.
Bloom’s: Understand
APA Outcome: 2.2: Demonstrate psychology information literacy; 2.3: Engage in innovative and integrative thinking and problem solving
151) What is latent learning? Give an example of latent learning.
Answer: Students’ answers may vary.
Latent learning refers to learning in which a new behavior is acquired but is not demonstrated until some incentive is provided for displaying it. In short, latent learning occurs without reinforcement. For example, latent learning may permit one to know the location of a kitchenware store at a local mall one has frequently visited, even though one has never entered the store and does not even like to cook.
Difficulty: 2 Medium Page Ref: 184-185
Section: 16: Operant Conditioning
Topic: Latent Learning
Learning Objective: Explain observational learning.
Bloom’s: Understand
APA Outcome: 1.1: Describe key concepts, principles, and overarching themes in psychology
152) Observational learning research suggests that seeing others reinforced for particular behaviors may encourage our own acquisition of similar behaviors. To what extent is exposure to media violence associated with the acquisition of aggressive behavior?
Answer: Different levels of media violence are associated with aggressive behavior. The text offers the following evidence:
—One survey of incarcerated, violent young male offenders showed that 25 percent had tried to commit a media-inspired copycat crime.
—College students who frequently played violent video games were more likely to have been involved in delinquent behavior and aggression.
The text mentions three specific mechanisms by which media violence may contribute to real-life aggression: (1) it may lower inhibitions against behaving aggressively; (2) it may predispose us to see others’ behavior as aggressive even when it is not; and (3) it may desensitize us to violence.
Difficulty: 2 Medium Page Ref: 187-188
Section: 17: Cognitive Approaches to Learning
Topic: Observational Learning
Learning Objective: Explain observational learning.
Bloom’s: Remember
APA Outcome: 1.2: Develop a working knowledge of psychology’s content domains
153) To what extent does culture influence learning style? Distinguish between analytic and relational learning styles and suggest how they might vary across sociocultural groups. How might they reflect cross-cultural differences in parenting or teaching practices?
Answer: The answer should include the following elements:
Analytic learning style—Individuals with an analytic learning style perform best when they can undertake an initial analysis of the principles and components underlying a phenomenon.
Relational learning style—Individuals with a relational learning style perform best when they are first exposed to a full unit or complete phenomenon; the individual parts are best understood through their relationship to the whole.
Caucasian and Asian-American males tend to display an analytic learning style; Caucasian females and African-, Native-, and Hispanic-American males and females tend to display a relational style.
Parenting and teaching practices may encourage the development of one or the other of the learning styles. Western education tends to reinforce the acquisition of an analytic style, as does Caucasian-American parenting; it is possible that parenting styles among other sociocultural groups tend to encourage a more relational style.
Difficulty: 1 Easy Page Ref: 189-190
Section: 17: Cognitive Approaches to Learning
Topic: Learning Styles
Learning Objective: Summarize the types of learning.
Bloom’s: Remember
APA Outcome: 1.2: Develop a working knowledge of psychology’s content domains; 5.5: Develop meaningful professional direction for life after graduation
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