Essentials Of Understanding Psychology 6Th Canadian Edition By Robert S Feldman - Test Bank

Essentials Of Understanding Psychology 6Th Canadian Edition By Robert S Feldman – Test Bank

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Chapter 05

Learning

True / False Questions

Nature is the part of our behaviour that does not require learning.
TRUE

Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Blooms: Remember
Difficulty: Easy
Learning Objective: 05-01 What is learning?
Topic: 05-01 The Basics of Classical Conditioning

When a person has habituated to a stimulus, she shows an increase in response when exposed to the same stimulus in the future.
FALSE

Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Blooms: Remember
Difficulty: Medium
Learning Objective: 05-01 What is learning?
Topic: 05-01 The Basics of Classical Conditioning

When a neutral stimulus follows the presentation of an unconditioned stimulus, there is a very low likelihood that it will become a conditioned stimulus.
TRUE

Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Blooms: Remember
Difficulty: Hard
Learning Objective: 05-01 What is learning?
Topic: 05-01 The Basics of Classical Conditioning

Although Pavlov was first to report learning through classical conditioning and designed the research which developed this theory, he was not a psychologist.
TRUE

Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Blooms: Remember
Difficulty: Easy
Learning Objective: 05-01 What is learning?
Topic: 05-01 The Basics of Classical Conditioning

According to the law of effect, if Roberta is paid for making good grades, then it is likely that she will continue to strive to make good grades.
TRUE

Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Blooms: Apply
Difficulty: Medium
Learning Objective: 05-03 What is the role of reward and punishment in learning?
Topic: 05-06 Thorndike’s Law of Effect

People with an analytical learning style do best when they can carry out an initial analysis of the principles and components underlying a phenomenon or situation.
TRUE

Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Blooms: Understand
Difficulty: Medium
Learning Objective: 05-01 What is learning?
Topic: 05-20 Violence in Television and Video Games: Does the Media’s Message Matter?

Despite conducting much research, psychologists have been unable to show that phobias can be learned through classical conditioning.
FALSE

Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Blooms: Understand
Difficulty: Medium
Learning Objective: 05-02 How do we learn to form associations between stimuli and responses?
Topic: 05-02 Applying Conditioning Principles to Human Behaviour

Learning waits until the critical age of eight months before it can be observed in humans.
FALSE

Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Blooms: Remember
Difficulty: Easy
Learning Objective: 05-02 How do we learn to form associations between stimuli and responses?
Topic: 05-02 Applying Conditioning Principles to Human Behaviour

Irrational fears, which develop through classical conditioning, may develop into a phobia.
TRUE

Once a conditioned response is extinguished, recovery is not possible.
FALSE

Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Blooms: Understand
Difficulty: Easy
Learning Objective: 05-02 How do we learn to form associations between stimuli and responses?
Topic: 05-03 Extinction

The “operate” in the term operant refers to the “work” of the organism.
TRUE

Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Blooms: Remember
Difficulty: Medium
Learning Objective: 05-02 How do we learn to form associations between stimuli and responses?
Topic: 05-05 Beyond Traditional Classical Conditioning: Challenging Basic Assumptions

Operant conditioning cannot be used to teach people to use one door as opposed to another.
FALSE

Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Blooms: Remember
Difficulty: Medium
Learning Objective: 05-04 What are some practical methods for bringing about behaviour change; both in ourselves and in others?
Topic: 05-07 The Basics of Operant Conditioning

Taking a child’s favourite toy away to stop her misbehaviour is an example of negative reinforcement.
FALSE

Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Blooms: Understand
Difficulty: Medium
Learning Objective: 05-04 What are some practical methods for bringing about behaviour change; both in ourselves and in others?
Topic: 05-10 Positive Reinforcers, Negative Reinforcers, and Punishment

A negative reinforcer is used to stop or decrease a behaviour.
FALSE

Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Blooms: Remember
Difficulty: Easy
Learning Objective: 05-04 What are some practical methods for bringing about behaviour change; both in ourselves and in others?
Topic: 05-10 Positive Reinforcers, Negative Reinforcers, and Punishment

Research has shown that continuous schedules promote quicker learning initially, but partial schedules are more effective in maintaining a learned behaviour over time.
TRUE

Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Blooms: Understand
Difficulty: Medium
Learning Objective: 05-04 What are some practical methods for bringing about behaviour change; both in ourselves and in others?
Topic: 05-12 Schedules of Reinforcement: Timing Life’s Rewards

Reinforcements given on a fixed interval schedule have a greater effect on learning than reinforcements given on variable-interval or ratio.
FALSE

Human biological constraints may stem from an innate predisposition to learn some things better than others. For example, research has shown that humans tend to learn associations with threatening expressions more quickly than associations with pleasant expressions.
TRUE

Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Blooms: Understand
Difficulty: Medium
Learning Objective: 05-04 What are some practical methods for bringing about behaviour change; both in ourselves and in others?
Topic: 05-16 Biological Constraints on Learning: You Can’t Teach an Old Dog Just any Trick

Behaviour modification programs have been effective in helping people to lose weight and quit smoking.
TRUE

Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Blooms: Remember
Difficulty: Hard
Learning Objective: 05-04 What are some practical methods for bringing about behaviour change; both in ourselves and in others?
Topic: 05-17 Comparing Classical and Operant Conditioning

Latent learning usually occurs when a reward or incentive for demonstrating a new behaviour is absent.
TRUE

Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Blooms: Remember
Difficulty: Easy
Learning Objective: 05-05 What is the role of cognition and thought in learning?
Topic: 05-18 Latent Learning

For observational learning to be effective, the demonstration of a behaviour that a person has observed must occur within minutes of the observation itself.
FALSE

Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Blooms: Understand
Difficulty: Medium
Learning Objective: 05-05 What is the role of cognition and thought in learning?
Topic: 05-19 Observational Learning: Learning Through Imitation

The average child will view about 8000 murders on television by the time he or she graduates elementary school.
TRUE

Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Blooms: Remember
Difficulty: Medium
Learning Objective: 05-05 What is the role of cognition and thought in learning?
Topic: 05-20 Violence in Television and Video Games: Does the Media’s Message Matter?

Multiple Choice Questions

In Pavlov’s classical conditioning experiments, the neutral stimulus that comes to elicit a conditioned response is known as which of the following?
A.Unconditioned stimulus
B. Conditioned stimulus
C. Reinforced stimulus
D. Unreinforced stimulus

Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Blooms: Understand
Difficulty: Easy
Learning Objective: 05-01 What is learning?
Topic: 05-01 The Basics of Classical Conditioning

As one ages, some changes occur as a result of the unfolding of biologically predetermined behavioural patterns. Which of the following describes these changes?
A.Are evident in animals but not in humans
B. Are known as maturation
C. Represent a simple category of learning
D. Require that the person has knowledge about cognitive maps

Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Blooms: Understand
Difficulty: Medium
Learning Objective: 05-01 What is learning?
Topic: 05-01 The Basics of Classical Conditioning

Which of the following is clear when an infant becomes accustomed to a stimulus and no longer attends, or becomes bored?
A.This is a new experience for the infant.
B. This is something that frightens the infant.
C. A stimulus change will not regain the infant’s attention.
D. The infant recognized that he has seen this before and believes this is the way the stimulus should be.

Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Blooms: Understand
Difficulty: Medium
Learning Objective: 05-01 What is learning?
Topic: 05-01 The Basics of Classical Conditioning

Learning is a change in behaviour that is best described by which of the following?
A.Relatively permanent and due to experience
B. Relatively permanent and due to maturation
C. Absolutely permanent and due to experience
D. Absolutely permanent and due to maturation

Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Blooms: Understand
Difficulty: Easy
Learning Objective: 05-01 What is learning?
Topic: 05-01 The Basics of Classical Conditioning

Which of the following processes could explain why after repeatedly hearing the same song on the radio, some people lost interest-even though they loved the song when they first heard it?
A.Maturation
B. Shaping
C. Habituation
D. Stimulus discrimination

Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Blooms: Understand
Difficulty: Medium
Learning Objective: 05-01 What is learning?
Topic: 05-01 The Basics of Classical Conditioning

Which of the following describes the conditioned stimulus in classical conditioning?
A.Initially painful
B. Intrinsically rewarding
C. Initially neutral
D. Naturally produced

Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Blooms: Understand
Difficulty: Easy
Learning Objective: 05-01 What is learning?
Topic: 05-01 The Basics of Classical Conditioning

In a landmark Canadian case in Alberta, a disabled child earned the right to do what?
A.Bring a relative to school with him each day for emotional support
B. To have an academic tutor attend each class, including test days
C. Has a classmate write his test and assignments for him
D. Bring his dog to school with him because he guides and supports him

Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Blooms: Remember
Difficulty: Easy
Learning Objective: 05-01 What is learning?
Topic: 05-01 The Basics of Classical Conditioning

Marianne was an excellent tennis player before she developed MS. Today, her skills, though present, are not at their peak. What does this indicate about learning?
A.Unlearning can occur when physical condition changes.
B. Learning and physical condition are not necessarily related.
C. According to the definition of learning all changes, negative for positive, are cases of unlearning or learning.
D. Nature has no influence on nurture.

Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Blooms: Understand
Difficulty: Hard
Learning Objective: 05-01 What is learning?
Topic: 05-01 The Basics of Classical Conditioning

There is a bully in a third grade class. The teacher was able to maintain safe behaviour in the classroom, but when the class passed through the classroom door on their way to lunch, the bully would hide behind the door and punch boys. The boys dreaded that time each day. But one day the bully was home ill. Although the class knew he was absent, many were surprised to find that they still ducked as if to shield themselves as they left the classroom for lunch. According to classical conditioning principles, the classroom door had become which of the following?
A.Conditioned stimulus
B. Neutral stimulus
C. Unconditioned stimulus
D. Unconditioned response

Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Blooms: Apply
Difficulty: Hard
Learning Objective: 05-01 What is learning?
Topic: 05-01 The Basics of Classical Conditioning

In order to “cry” during a particular scene, an actress held a handkerchief soaked in onion juice close to her face. The onion juice served as which of the following?
A.UCS
B. UCR
C. CS
D. CR

Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Blooms: Apply
Difficulty: Medium
Learning Objective: 05-01 What is learning?
Topic: 05-01 The Basics of Classical Conditioning

Which of the following describes a relatively permanent change in behaviour brought about by experience?
A.Maturation
B. Learning
C. Development
D. Instinct

Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Blooms: Remember
Difficulty: Easy
Learning Objective: 05-01 What is learning?
Topic: 05-01 The Basics of Classical Conditioning

When a conditioned stimulus is paired with an unconditioned stimulus, which of the following occurs?
A.Classical conditioning occurs
B. Operant conditioning occurs
C. Social learning takes place
D. A matched set is developed

Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Blooms: Understand
Difficulty: Easy
Learning Objective: 05-01 What is learning?
Topic: 05-01 The Basics of Classical Conditioning

Which of the following examples best illustrates the concept of learning?
A.A baby develops the leg muscles necessary to help him walk for the first time.
B. A fatigued teenager, who is usually very smart, fails a biology exam.
C. A 20-year old has too many alcoholic drinks and begins dancing at a party.
D. A chef improves their cooking skills by watching a chef cook on television.

Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Blooms: Apply
Difficulty: Hard
Learning Objective: 05-01 What is learning?
Topic: 05-01 The Basics of Classical Conditioning

The researcher placed two puppets on a puppet stage before the four-month-old baby. The child watched carefully and became bored and looked away. The experimenter covered the puppets will a curtain. When the curtain rose one puppet was missing. The baby looked again at the puppets. The curtain covered the puppets once more, but when it rose there were still two puppets. The stimulus had not changed. When looking was timed, it was found that the baby looked for a shorter period of time at the constant stimulus. This is a clear example of which of the following?
A.Stimulus recovery
B. Habituation
C. Learning
D. Preparatory set

Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Blooms: Apply
Difficulty: Medium
Learning Objective: 05-01 What is learning?
Topic: 05-01 The Basics of Classical Conditioning

Pavlov’s research involving digestion was interrupted because it was discovered that the dogs where doing which of the following?
A.Had bitten through the sensing rubes.
B. Stomach acids and salivation were not being secreted.
C. Began salivating before eating the food.
D. Secreted stomach acid before salivating.

Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Blooms: Understand
Difficulty: Easy
Learning Objective: 05-01 What is learning?
Topic: 05-01 The Basics of Classical Conditioning

The relationship of learning to maturation is the same as the relationship of __________ to __________.
A.unconscious; conscious
B. conscious; unconscious
C. nature; nurture
D. nurture; nature

Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Blooms: Understand
Difficulty: Hard
Learning Objective: 05-01 What is learning?
Topic: 05-01 The Basics of Classical Conditioning

When she was 6 years old, Anita went to a camp where she had a wonderful time. Two years later, her parents drove past the camp on their way to a family vacation. Anita had an unaccountable positive feeling sweep over her. Her positive feelings can be explained through which of the following processes?
A.Discriminant learning
B. Classical conditioning
C. Observational learning
D. Cognitive mapping

Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Blooms: Apply
Difficulty: Medium
Learning Objective: 05-02 How do we learn to form associations between stimuli and responses?
Topic: 05-02 Applying Conditioning Principles to Human Behaviour

Mindy was watching television during a thunderstorm. During the program, a loud clap of thunder startled Mindy, and her heartbeat increased. Now whenever she watches that same television show, Mindy notices that her heartbeat quickens. In this example, which of the following is the unconditioned stimulus?
A.Television program
B. Television itself
C. Clap of thunder
D. Heartbeat

Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Blooms: Apply
Difficulty: Hard
Learning Objective: 05-02 How do we learn to form associations between stimuli and responses?
Topic: 05-02 Applying Conditioning Principles to Human Behaviour

Dan was riding a bus when the engine backfired and made a loud “bang.” His heart started pounding, and he felt sick with fear. The next time Dan got on a bus, these unpleasant feelings returned. How would Pavlov explain what happened to Dan?
A.Through a shaping process, Dan had become reinforced for behaving in a nervous way.
B. Dan was seeking attention from the other people on the bus.
C. Unconscious anxiety was aroused by Dan’s sexual feelings toward the bus driver.
D. The unpleasant feeling had become a conditioned response.

Rebecca loves to get email from her friends. Her computer makes a “boing” noise every time an email arrives. Before she got this computer, the “boing” noise meant nothing to her, but now she really loves that noise. The “boing” on her computer has become which of the following for Rebecca?
A.Conditioned response
B. Conditioned stimulus
C. Unconditioned response
D. Unconditioned stimulus

Max, a five-year-old, is just starting school. He has a teacher who is constantly yelling. The yelling is quite frightening to the little boy. Before she yells, the teacher always wrinkles her forehead. After two weeks at school, the little boy is afraid whenever he sees anyone wrinkle their forehead. What explains the boy’s new fear?
A.Conditioned response
B. Conditioned stimulus
C. Unconditioned response
D. Unconditioned stimulus

In a laboratory experiment, kittens were being conditioned to blink their eyes to the ring of a bell. Gentle puffs of air were blown into the kittens faces, they blinked their eyes, and, finally, the bell was rung. The experiment was not successful. What error was made?
A.Kittens do not respond to high pitched sounds such as the bell.
B. The kittens must blink before the puffs of air are blown.
C. The bell must be rung at the same time the kittens blink.
D. The bell must be rung just before the puff of air is presented.

A psychologist with an interest in photography wants to see if she can train people to salivate when they look at photographs. In her research, subjects look at photographs of trees while lemonade crystals are placed on their tongue. The lemonade causes them to salivate. Over the course of many trials, people start to salivate to the photographs alone. In this situation, the photographs serve as which of the following?
A.Unconditioned responses
B. Conditioned responses
C. Unconditioned stimuli
D. Conditioned stimuli

Which of the following naturally elicits the response with which it is paired, even without conditioning?
A.Cognitive map
B. Learned helplessness
C. Conditioned stimulus
D. Unconditioned stimulus

Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Blooms: Understand
Difficulty: Easy
Learning Objective: 05-02 How do we learn to form associations between stimuli and responses?
Topic: 05-02 Applying Conditioning Principles to Human Behaviour

Which of the following statements describes classical conditioning?
A.The UCR and the CR are very different.
B. The UCR and the CR are identical.
C. Conditioning is strongest when the CS is presented just before the UCS.
D. Conditioning is strongest when the CS is presented soon after the UCS.

What kind of fear did J. B. Watson condition in Little Albert?
A.Fear of a white rat
B. Fear of a large spider
C. Fear of the sound of a metal bar being struck
D. Fear of a loud noise from a truck

A new dog is brought into a classical conditioning lab, totally unfamiliar with any of the experiments. The dog will most likely do which of the following at the sound of a tuning fork?
A.Salivates involuntarily
B. Does not salivate
C. Expects the delivery of food, especially if the dog has missed a meal
D. Salivates voluntarily

Jennifer is desperately afraid of snakes. Her psychologist believes that her fear of snakes may have been classically conditioned. If her psychologist is correct, Jennifer’s fear is which of the following?
A.UCS
B. UCR
C. CS
D. CR

When learning takes place, the neutral stimulus will do which of the following?
A.Become the response.
B. No longer be a factor.
C. Result in an unconditioned response.
D. Become the conditioned stimulus.

Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Blooms: Remember
Difficulty: Medium
Learning Objective: 05-02 How do we learn to form associations between stimuli and responses?
Topic: 05-02 Applying Conditioning Principles to Human Behaviour

An athlete who you like has been asked to be a spokesperson for a new basketball shoe. The hope is that you will come to associate the basketball shoe with the athlete, leading you to like the shoes. In this example, which of the following is the conditioned stimulus?
A.Athlete
B. Basketball shoes
C. Liking
D. Sports

Which of the following is an example of the behavioural process known as extinction?
A.Joan no longer shops at her neighbourhood bakery because they stopped making her favourite kind of bagels.
B. Janet gets angry at her roommate for borrowing her computer without telling her.
C. Mark finds that he cannot stop playing his favourite video game because every few times he is able to beat his best score.
D. Terry studies extensively for her psychology exam so that she will get good grades and she will be admitted to a nursing program.

Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Blooms: Understand
Difficulty: Medium
Learning Objective: 05-02 How do we learn to form associations between stimuli and responses?
Topic: 05-03 Extinction

A movie theater use to give out free popcorn samples every Friday night, so you made sure you went on that day. Once they stopped providing samples you stopped going on Fridays. The fact that you stopped going to that store is an example of what learning process?
A.Partial reinforcement
B. Superstitious behaviour
C. Shaping
D. Extinction

Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Blooms: Apply
Difficulty: Medium
Learning Objective: 05-02 How do we learn to form associations between stimuli and responses?
Topic: 05-03 Extinction

Beth has been using the new concepts she learned in psychology class. For example, she noticed that on an icy day her cat would prance lightly on the ground as if tiptoeing. Based on her understanding of classical conditioning, Beth began to ring a bell just as her cat took his first step onto the ice. She was then able to entertain her friends by ringing the bell and displaying her prancing cat inside the house. Which of the following best describes why Beth had to be cautious during her performances not to ring the bell too frequently?
A.Cats are easily bored
B. The unconditioned response is not consistent
C. Extinction occurs after conditioned stimulus is not paired with the unconditioned stimulus over a period of time
D. Spontaneous recovery takes 24 hours

Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Blooms: Apply
Difficulty: Hard
Learning Objective: 05-02 How do we learn to form associations between stimuli and responses?
Topic: 05-03 Extinction

After a period of extinction, a conditioned response occurs again when an unconditioned stimulus is presented. Which of the following describes what this is called?
A.Stimulus generalization
B. Trace conditioning
C. Spontaneous recovery
D. Contiguous learning

Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Blooms: Understand
Difficulty: Easy
Learning Objective: 05-02 How do we learn to form associations between stimuli and responses?
Topic: 05-03 Extinction

Several years after breaking his addiction to smoking, Dan was chewing on a straw. He suddenly felt an irresistible urge to smoke a cigarette. Which of the following describes this response?
A.Spontaneous recovery
B. Contiguous learning
C. Stimulus generalization
D. Trace conditioning

Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Blooms: Apply
Difficulty: Medium
Learning Objective: 05-02 How do we learn to form associations between stimuli and responses?
Topic: 05-03 Extinction

Katie used to feel a twinge in her left arm every time she saw the flower poster that was displayed in the doctor’s office where she got her flu shot. However, it has been six months since she got the shot and although she has since visited her doctor, she no longer feels a twinge when she sees the flower poster. In behavioural terms, this process is called which of the following?
A.Discrimination
B. Extinction
C. Higher-order conditioning
D. Spontaneous recovery

Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Blooms: Apply
Difficulty: Medium
Learning Objective: 05-02 How do we learn to form associations between stimuli and responses?
Topic: 05-03 Extinction

Tina was relieved that she had finally “out grown” her fear of dogs. She had even adopted a puppy. One afternoon she fell asleep while on her patio. Wanting to play, her puppy came from behind and licked her shoulder. Nina was suddenly awake. She jumped up and screamed. For a brief moment, all of the old fears returned. This is clearly a case of which of the following?
A.Unchanged response conditioning
B. Spontaneous recovery
C. Incomplete extinction
D. A conditioned stimulus creating an unconditioned response

Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Blooms: Apply
Difficulty: Medium
Learning Objective: 05-02 How do we learn to form associations between stimuli and responses?
Topic: 05-03 Extinction

If a conditioned stimulus is presented repeatedly without the unconditioned stimulus, which of the following will occur?
A.The conditioned response will diminish
B. The unconditioned response will not appear
C. The neutral stimulus will be needed to replace the conditioned stimulus
D. The unconditioned stimulus will increase

Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Blooms: Understand
Difficulty: Medium
Learning Objective: 05-02 How do we learn to form associations between stimuli and responses?
Topic: 05-03 Extinction

A woman loses her superstition of black cats when bad things do not happen after he sees one. What is this process called?
A.Extinction
B. Learning
C. Perception
D. Desensitization

Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Blooms: Apply
Difficulty: Easy
Learning Objective: 05-02 How do we learn to form associations between stimuli and responses?
Topic: 05-03 Extinction

John Garcia found that rats that were irradiated to feel nauseous avoided drinking water in their cage, even when the nausea and water were experienced at different times. This showed that
A.What is aversive to humans may be positively rewarding to animals.
B. What applies to escape conditioning does not apply to aversive conditioning.
C. Learning is unaffected by the amount of time separating the conditioned and the unconditioned stimuli.
D. Conditioning may occur even though the conditioned and unconditioned stimuli are separated by several hours.

Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Blooms: Apply
Difficulty: Hard
Learning Objective: 05-02 How do we learn to form associations between stimuli and responses?
Topic: 05-04 Generalization and Discrimination

When Tom drivies and sees a police car, he immediately steps on his brake. When he sees a fire truck, he does not step on the brake. Which of the following is Terrence demonstrating?
A.Stimulus generalization
B. Stimulus discrimination
C. Extinction
D. Spontaneous recovery

What term describes a situation when an animal that was conditioned to respond to a red light also responds to a pink light?
A.Cumulative response recording
B. Higher-order classical conditioning
C. Stimulus discrimination
D. Stimulus generalization

Although there are many family members who adore baby Sammy, he tends to turn his head most readily to the voice of his mother. At one week, Sammy has learned which of the following?
A.Stimulus generalization
B. Spontaneous recovery
C. Stimulus discrimination
D. An unconditioned response

Milton’s boss asks him to come into her office. To determine whether this request is a signal of good or bad news, Milton looks to see if his boss is smiling or frowning and whether the tone of her voice sounds positive or negative. Milton is using which of the following to inform his decision?
A.Extinction
B. Spontaneous recovery
C. Stimulus generalization
D. Stimulus discrimination

After Hannah broke up with her boyfriend, she can no longer enjoy eating Mexican food. You suspect which of the following?
A.Hannah and her boyfriend frequently ate Mexican food together.
B. Hannah‘s boyfriend did not like Mexican food.
C. Hannah only pretended to like Mexican food while they were going together.
D. Hannah‘s boyfriend had given her bad advice about the Mexican restaurant.

An event on the battlefield may be so psychologically painful that weeks or years later which of the following will occur?
A.The veteran may not be able to recall it.
B. Any change will result in a phobic reaction.
C. A loud noise or memory will result in a negative response.
D. Generalization will occur to any unconditioned stimulus.

You could say that Randy was raised with chickens. His family owned a large successful poultry farm, but Randy has a great dislike for any type of bird. His mother believes the origin of her son’s feelings are due to the fact that when he way young, an aggressive rooster chased Randy before she could intervene. In classical conditioning terms, the conditioned fear of the rooster is described by which of the following?
A.The rooster has become an unconditioned stimulus for birds.
B. The rooster is generalized.
C. The rooster has become a neutral stimulus.
D. The rooster has developed into a consecutive response.

A pet parrot mistakes a ping-pong ball for its own egg and sits on the ping-pong ball instead of its egg. Which of the following conditioning principles does this demonstrate?
A.Learned helplessness
B. Stimulus generalization
C. Superstitious behaviour
D. Observational learning

In order to prevent coyotes from killing their sheep, some ranchers now lace a sheep carcass with a drug that makes the coyotes quite ill. After just one exposure, the coyotes avoid sheep. How is this example violating a basic rule of traditional classical conditioning?
A.The interval between the conditioned stimulus and response is relatively long.
B. There is no unconditioned stimulus that would produce the conditioned response.
C. Coyotes avoid eating sheep for reasons other than nausea.
D. Animals cannot be conditioned with aversive stimuli.

Sue was petting her dog when she heard a loud clattering from an upstairs room. She became very startled. Now, she feels a bit fearful when she touches anything furry. In behavioural terms what is this process?
A.Response extinction
B. Stimulus generalization
C. Voluntary conditioning
D. Spontaneous recovery

When is stimulus generalization strongest?
A.When stressful arousal caused by the stimulus has been reduced.
B. When the stimuli are very similar to each other (e.g., sounds of almost the same pitch).
C. When the stimuli are very pleasurable.
D. When the stimuli occur randomly at unpredictable times.

The relationship of operant conditioning to classical conditioning is the same as the relationship of __________ responses to __________ responses.
A.voluntary; involuntary
B. involuntary; voluntary
C. conscious; unconscious
D. unconscious; conscious

Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Blooms: Understand
Difficulty: Hard
Learning Objective: 05-02 How do we learn to form associations between stimuli and responses?
Topic: 05-05 Beyond Traditional Classical Conditioning: Challenging Basic Assumptions

Which of the following refers to the category of learning in which voluntary behaviour is affected by its consequences?
A.Cognitive mapping
B. Classical conditioning
C. Operant conditioning
D. Superstitious learning

Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Blooms: Understand
Difficulty: Easy
Learning Objective: 05-03 What is the role of reward and punishment in learning?
Topic: 05-06 Thorndike’s Law of Effect

What did Edward Thorndike’s experiments with caged cats show?
A.Despite their high intelligence, cats respond poorly to classical conditioning.
B. Negative reinforcement is the removal of a pleasant stimulus.
C. Punishment is a risky way to produce behavioural change.
D. Satisfying responses are more likely to be repeated in subsequent situations.

Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Blooms: Remember
Difficulty: Medium
Learning Objective: 05-03 What is the role of reward and punishment in learning?
Topic: 05-06 Thorndike’s Law of Effect

The operate in operant indicates which of the following?
A.An organism will “work” or operate on its environment in order to receive desirable consequence.
B. An organism will change the relationship between conditioned and unconditioned stimulus before responding.
C. The “effect” has little consequences for behaviour.
D. Only negative consequences can escalate behaviour.

Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Blooms: Understand
Difficulty: Easy
Learning Objective: 05-03 What is the role of reward and punishment in learning?
Topic: 05-06 Thorndike’s Law of Effect

“I have eight hens and have to buy eggs at the grocery store!” Sarah complained. “They lay eggs in the barn, under the swing, and behind the kitchen door, but not in their nesting boxes.” She decided to apply operant conditioning to the problem. Which of the following best describes what Sarah will do?
A.The hens were locked in the hen house and no longer allowed to roam the yard.
B. All yard egg laying places were located and searched daily.
C. The barn door was closed providing fewer nesting areas.
D. When a hen laid an egg in the hen house, she was rewarded with fresh food and water.

Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Blooms: Apply
Difficulty: Medium
Learning Objective: 05-03 What is the role of reward and punishment in learning?
Topic: 05-06 Thorndike’s Law of Effect

Dan was learning to walk and climb. When his Mom needed a moment to talk on the phone, she would place him in his play pen. One afternoon Dan decided to play with his blocks while in the play pen. As he built his tower, he tried standing on them. He found that when he stood on the blocks, he could lift his leg over the side of the pen. Thorndike would probably predict which of the following?
A.Dan would learn to throw his blocks out of the pen in order to get attention.
B. Dan would escape from the pen and then repeat the behaviour each time his mother returned him to the pen.
C. Dan would use the tower to elevate his toy cars to the height of the pen and then over the edge.
D. Dan would escape from the pen but be too young to recall how to repeat the behaviour.

Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Blooms: Apply
Difficulty: Medium
Learning Objective: 05-03 What is the role of reward and punishment in learning?
Topic: 05-06 Thorndike’s Law of Effect

According to the tenants of operant conditioning, a response will be strengthened if which of the following takes place?
A.Pairing between conditioned and unconditioned stimulus takes place.
B. Reinforcement is delayed.
C. Favourable consequences follow the response.
D. Extinction does not occur.

Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Blooms: Understand
Difficulty: Easy
Learning Objective: 05-03 What is the role of reward and punishment in learning?
Topic: 05-06 Thorndike’s Law of Effect

Joy loves to bring home A’s on her report card because whenever she does her father gives her $5. This is an example of which of the following?
A.Latent learning
B. Discrimination training
C. Generalization
D. The law of effect

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Blooms: Apply
Difficulty: Medium
Learning Objective: 05-03 What is the role of reward and punishment in learning?
Topic: 05-06 Thorndike’s Law of Effect

Kim enjoys skiing and finds that she goes on the slopes as often as she can. How would Kim’s behaviour be explained by Thorndike’s Law of Effect?
A.Behaviour that is rewarding or satisfying is likely to be repeated.
B. The causes of behaviour generally cannot be studied systematically.
C. The whole of human behaviour is greater than the sum of its parts.
D. Recreational preferences are typically shaped through classical conditioning.

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Blooms: Apply
Difficulty: Easy
Learning Objective: 05-03 What is the role of reward and punishment in learning?
Topic: 05-06 Thorndike’s Law of Effect

Each time Fido is asked to go outside and stand by the door, Mike gives him a treat. Why would Mike not be certain that Fido has been consistently house broken?
A.He would rather be fed inside than outside.
B. He now goes to the door for a treat very frequently, but does not always need to go outside.
C. He has discovered where the treats are hidden.
D. Expects a treat after he has had an accident in the house.

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Blooms: Apply
Difficulty: Medium
Learning Objective: 05-03 What is the role of reward and punishment in learning?
Topic: 05-06 Thorndike’s Law of Effect

Don felt stressed when he took his three-year-old to the store. His son grabbed items on the shelves and screamed when placed in the child carrier in the cart. Don made the most of these moments by giving his son every item he grabbed and allowing him to run around unrestricted. According to the principles of operant conditioning, one could expect Don’s son to do which of the following?
A.To continue his present behaviour.
B. To grow out of the unfortunate behaviour.
C. To begin pushing the cart for his father.
D. To finally “burn out” and adapt to a more civilized behaviour pattern.

Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Blooms: Apply
Difficulty: Medium
Learning Objective: 05-03 What is the role of reward and punishment in learning?
Topic: 05-07 The Basics of Operant Conditioning

Whenever a student answers a question in class, the professor responds, “That’s a great question”. Students are subsequently more likely to ask questions. Which of the following does this example most clearly illustrate?
A.Classical conditioning
B. Operant conditioning
C. Observational learning
D. Cognitive mapping

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Blooms: Apply
Difficulty: Easy
Learning Objective: 05-04 What are some practical methods for bringing about behaviour change; both in ourselves and in others?
Topic: 05-07 The Basics of Operant Conditioning

Fido, the dog, is afraid of loud noises. Although he is supposed to live in his outside house, a thunder storm will cause him try to sneak into the family home. His owner has decided to use the same operant conditioning principles which caused her to come into the house to motivate Fido to return to his outside house. Which of the following will be used?
A.A food treat will be placed outside to tempt Fido to leave the family home.
B. Fido will be patted and encouraged to return to the yard.
C. Fido will not receive any treats while he is in the family home.
D. A recording of loud noises will be placed in his spot in the family home.

Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Blooms: Apply
Difficulty: Medium
Learning Objective: 05-04 What are some practical methods for bringing about behaviour change; both in ourselves and in others?
Topic: 05-08 Reinforcement: The Central Concept of Operant Conditioning

For cleaning his room, John earns a blue token. When he earns 5 blue tokens, he can exchange them for his favourite treat, an ice-cream cone. In this example, the blue chip is a __________ reinforcer, and the ice-cream is a __________ reinforcer.
A.primary; secondary
B. secondary; primary
C. fixed; variable
D. variable; fixed

Which of the following best describes a secondary reinforce?
A.Are reinforcing through their association with primary reinforcers.
B. Are oriented toward rapid responses rather than toward slow responses.
C. Have effects that are more temporary than is the case for other reinforcers.
D. Apply to human learning but not to animal learning.

Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Blooms: Understand
Difficulty: Easy
Learning Objective: 05-04 What are some practical methods for bringing about behaviour change; both in ourselves and in others?
Topic: 05-08 Reinforcement: The Central Concept of Operant Conditioning

The eight-year-olds were misbehaving. They had just come in from the playground and were not interested in “Math Time.” Their teacher stood in front of the room with a box of candy. Eventually, one little girl sat in her desk and looked as if she were ready to work. Their teacher placed a candy on her desk. The student began eating. Their teacher said nothing to the class. Suddenly, which of the following occurs?
A.The group became even louder as they protested the lack of candy on their own desks.
B. The students broke into play groups.
C. Another student and then another noticed that sitting in your desk quietly results in receiving candy.
D. The teacher placed the candy in her desk drawer.

A teacher has large class and is concerned with her inability to get to know her students. She decides to begin writing more personalized messages on their papers. such as “You have a unique style. Good ideas. I would like to see you develop these ideas. You are improving.” Which of the following is the teacher using?
A.Negative reinforcement
B. Secondary reinforcement
C. Primary reinforcement
D. Negative punishment

In the children’s game “Hot or Cold, ” the caller knows where an object is hidden. As the finders get closer to the hidden object, the caller shouts, “You are warm. You are getting warmer.” The goal is to gradually bring the finder to the goal. In operant conditioning terms, what is this called?
A.Controlling the variables
B. Shaping the finder’s behaviour
C. Punishing the finder until he finds the object
D. Removing the negative reinforcement

A father is teaching his daughter how to play the piano. To begin, he reinforces her with a smile when she comes near him while he is playing the piano. Soon, he smiles only when she sits at the piano with him. Then he smiles when she plays. Eventually, he will smile at her only when she plays basic melodies. The father is using which of the following to teach his daughter the complex task of playing the piano?
A.Stimulus control training
B. Classical conditioning
C. Shaping
D. Assimilation

When a researcher gives food reinforcement to a rat that gets closer to the target behaviour, but has not arrived at the target behaviour, what is the process termed?
A.Stimulus discrimination
B. Shaping
C. Stimulus generalization
D. Negative reinforcement

Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Blooms: Understand
Difficulty: Medium
Learning Objective: 05-04 What are some practical methods for bringing about behaviour change; both in ourselves and in others?
Topic: 05-08 Reinforcement: The Central Concept of Operant Conditioning

What will reinforcement do?
A.Cause higher level responses to appear
B. Slow negative responses
C. Increase the behaviour reinforced
D. Change the behaviour which is reinforced

Rewards such as food or water that satisfy biological needs are known as which of the following reinforcers?
A.Neutral
B. Primary
C. Secondary
D. Negative

Which of the following describes what a yellow smiley face sticker on a spelling test can be classified as?
A.Primary reinforcement
B. Secondary reinforcement
C. Intermittent reinforcement
D. Negative reinforcement

When you see the light from a highway patrol car flashing behind you, and you are asked to pull over, it is reasonable to suspect that you may be on the verge of experiencing which of the following?
A.Negative reinforcement
B. Positive punishment
C. Negative punishment
D. Secondary reinforcement

Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Blooms: Apply
Difficulty: Medium
Learning Objective: 05-04 What are some practical methods for bringing about behaviour change; both in ourselves and in others?
Topic: 05-10 Positive Reinforcers, Negative Reinforcers, and Punishment

In order to encourage the residents of the retirement house to become more active, the social worker schedule a daily bingo game with small but interesting prizes. What was the social working employing?
A.Secondary reinforcement to increase activity
B. Primary reinforcement to increase activity
C. Negative reinforcement to increase activity
D. Positive, secondary reinforcement to increase activity

Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Blooms: Apply
Difficulty: Medium
Learning Objective: 05-04 What are some practical methods for bringing about behaviour change; both in ourselves and in others?
Topic: 05-10 Positive Reinforcers, Negative Reinforcers, and Punishment

Theresa buys her groceries from a store that gives her a free gallon of milk every time she spends $100. She has been shopping at this store for years and has no desire to try a different store. What has Theresa’s behaviour has been influenced by?
A.By positive punishment
B. By negative punishment
C. By positive reinforcement
D. By negative reinforcement

Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Blooms: Apply
Difficulty: Medium
Learning Objective: 05-04 What are some practical methods for bringing about behaviour change; both in ourselves and in others?
Topic: 05-10 Positive Reinforcers, Negative Reinforcers, and Punishment

Punishments __________ the behaviours they follow; negative reinforcers __________ the behaviours they follow.
A.increase; decrease
B. increase; increase
C. decrease; decrease
D. decrease; increase

The process by which an aversive stimulus decreases the probability of a response that precedes it is known as which of the following?
A.Punishment
B. Extinction
C. Escape learning
D. Avoidance learning

Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Blooms: Understand
Difficulty: Easy
Learning Objective: 05-04 What are some practical methods for bringing about behaviour change; both in ourselves and in others?
Topic: 05-10 Positive Reinforcers, Negative Reinforcers, and Punishment

Which of the following is an example of negative reinforcement?
A.A student must stay after school because he talked back in class.
B. Because a student scored below 60% on a test, she must write a paper.
C. Several students stop misbehaving when the teacher returns to the classroom.
D. A student must stay after school until she cleans her desk.

Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Blooms: Understand
Difficulty: Hard
Learning Objective: 05-03 What is the role of reward and punishment in learning?
Topic: 05-10 Positive Reinforcers, Negative Reinforcers, and Punishment

Lisa was very shy and would not play with her fellow first-graders. If the teacher praised her only when Lisa was interacting with her classmates, the teacher would be attempting to use which of the following?
A.Positive reinforcement
B. Negative reinforcement
C. Shaping
D. Extinction

Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Blooms: Apply
Difficulty: Medium
Learning Objective: 05-04 What are some practical methods for bringing about behaviour change; both in ourselves and in others?
Topic: 05-10 Positive Reinforcers, Negative Reinforcers, and Punishment

Sara’s shoes hurt her feet terribly. She took them off and immediately felt relief. She is likely to take off her shoes again when they bother her. What is this behaviour?
A.Positive reinforcement
B. Negative reinforcement
C. Positive punishment
D. Negative punishment

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Blooms: Apply
Difficulty: Medium
Learning Objective: 05-04 What are some practical methods for bringing about behaviour change; both in ourselves and in others?
Topic: 05-10 Positive Reinforcers, Negative Reinforcers, and Punishment

Sarah wants to go to the movies, but she forgot to wash the dishes as her mother asked. She is not allowed to go to the movies. Which of the following has Sarah experienced?
A.Positive reinforcement
B. Negative reinforcement
C. Positive punishment
D. Negative punishment

Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Blooms: Apply
Difficulty: Medium
Learning Objective: 05-04 What are some practical methods for bringing about behaviour change; both in ourselves and in others?
Topic: 05-10 Positive Reinforcers, Negative Reinforcers, and Punishment

A politician promises that she will lower property taxes if voters elect her as their mayor. For those who vote for this politician, how has their behaviour been altered?
A.Positive punishment
B. Negative punishment
C. Positive reinforcement
D. Negative reinforcement

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Blooms: Apply
Difficulty: Medium
Learning Objective: 05-04 What are some practical methods for bringing about behaviour change; both in ourselves and in others?
Topic: 05-10 Positive Reinforcers, Negative Reinforcers, and Punishment

Jane wants her children to select healthy snacks rather that junk food. Each time they make a good choice, she rewards them with praise. Which of the following is Jane using?
A.Positive, secondary reinforcement in order to encourage stimulus generalization.
B. Positive, secondary reinforcement in order to shape behaviour.
C. Positive, secondary reinforcement in order to punish behaviour.
D. Positive, secondary reinforcement in order to encourage stimulus discrimination.

Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Blooms: Apply
Difficulty: Medium
Learning Objective: 05-04 What are some practical methods for bringing about behaviour change; both in ourselves and in others?
Topic: 05-10 Positive Reinforcers, Negative Reinforcers, and Punishment

Alexander loves home cooking, his wife loves to cook, and was good at it. Unfortunately, she refused to cook in the summertime because the old kitchen was just too hot. In order to increase his wife’s cooking behaviour, Alexander remodeled the kitchen and installed a new, cooler operating stove. His wife loves the new kitchen. What did Alexander use?
A.Positive reinforcement to get home cooked meals.
B. Negative reinforcement to get home cooked meals.
C. Positive punishment to get home cooked meals.
D. Negative punishment to get home cooked meals.

Which of the following is a disadvantage of physical punishment?
A.It may teach the recipient that physical aggression is acceptable and even desirable.
B. It may be effective as a last resort, when other control tactics have failed in suppressing self-injurious behaviour.
C. It never instills fear, which is an important human reaction.
D. It is ineffective if it is delivered shortly after the undesired behaviour.

Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Blooms: Understand
Difficulty: Easy
Learning Objective: 05-04 What are some practical methods for bringing about behaviour change; both in ourselves and in others?
Topic: 05-11 The Pros and Cons of Punishment: Why Reinforcement Beats Punishment

How do partial reinforcement schedules differ from continuous reinforcement schedules?
A.They are more resistant to extinction when reinforcement is withdrawn.
B. They are more likely to result in the delivery of more reinforcements.
C. They are more susceptible to positive reinforcers.
D. They are more efficient and easier to carry out.

Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Blooms: Understand
Difficulty: Easy
Learning Objective: 05-04 What are some practical methods for bringing about behaviour change; both in ourselves and in others?
Topic: 05-12 Schedules of Reinforcement: Timing Life’s Rewards

What is an advantage of partial reinforcement over continuous reinforcement?
A.Learning of operant responses would be more rapid with partial reinforcement than with continuous reinforcement.
B. More rewards would have to be given with partial reinforcement than would be the case with continuous reinforcement.
C. Partial reinforcement schedules would not be applicable.
D. When partial reinforcement is discontinued, behaviours would persist longer than would be the case with continuous reinforcement.

Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Blooms: Understand
Difficulty: Hard
Learning Objective: 05-04 What are some practical methods for bringing about behaviour change; both in ourselves and in others?
Topic: 05-12 Schedules of Reinforcement: Timing Life’s Rewards

Aaron works in a clothing store and he is paid on commission. When he sells five articles of clothing, he is rewarded with a $10 bonus. The schedule of reinforcement that is illustrated in this example is which of the following?
A.Fixed ratio
B. Fixed interval
C. Variable ratio
D. Variable interval

Marci believes that checkout stands were designed to inflect financial ruin on grandparents. She cares for her grandchildren while their parents are at work, and often has to take them with her to the grocery store. After some thought, she has devised a plan to circumvent the power of the checkout line goodies which her grandchildren whine for while they are waiting in line. Each grandchild has been given a sticker book. Each time they make it through check out without a single request, they receive a sticker. A page of stickers means they stop at Sonic on the way home. Which of the following is Marci using?
A.Primary, positive reinforcement on a fixed interval schedule.
B. Secondary, positive reinforcement on a fixed ratio schedule.
C. Secondary, positive reinforcement on a fixed interval schedule.
D. Secondary, negative reinforcement on a fixed ration schedule.

Dennis liked his friend’s toys better than his own. He gave his friend Freddy a cookie from the cookie jar whenever Freddy shared his toy with him. Dennis is encouraging Freddy to let him play with his toys by using which of the following?
A.Primary, positive reinforcement on a fixed ratio schedule.
B. Primary, negative reinforcement on a fixed interval schedule.
C. Secondary, positive reinforcement on a fixed ratio schedule.
D. Secondary, negative reinforcement on a fixed interval schedule.

Assume that your class is to have an oral quiz. For every two questions in a row that a student gets correct, the professor will add one point to the student’s classroom participation grade. This is an example of which type of reinforcement schedule?
A.Variable interval
B. Fixed interval
C. Variable ratio
D. Fixed ratio

Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Blooms: Apply
Difficulty: Medium
Learning Objective: 05-04 What are some practical methods for bringing about behaviour change; both in ourselves and in others?
Topic: 05-14 Fixed- and Variable-Interval Schedules: The Passage of Time

Initially, Alice found her new employer’s management style a little sneaky. No one knew when he would appear. He would suddenly walk in and out of the office cubicles asking workers questions about their projects, giving encouragement, and generally evaluating the work. He would not hesitate and told them what he thought. Sometimes it was good, sometimes it was not so good. Allison’s employer is using which of the following?
A.Fixed interval scheduling in order to maintain optimum performance in the work place.
B. Fixed ration scheduling in order to maintain optimum performance in the work place.
C. Variable interval scheduling in order to maintain optimum performance in the work place.
D. Variable ratio scheduling in order to maintain optimum performance in the work place.

Casey’s toaster is not working. Sometimes, the toast is ready in 10 seconds, sometimes 30 seconds. Sometimes it can take 1 minute before the toast is done. The toaster has Casey on what type of reinforcement schedule?
A.Fixed ratio
B. Fixed interval
C. Variable interval
D. Variable ratio

Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Blooms: Apply
Difficulty: Medium
Learning Objective: 05-04 What are some practical methods for bringing about behaviour change; both in ourselves and in others?
Topic: 05-14 Fixed- and Variable-Interval Schedules: The Passage of Time

Erik enjoys playing softball, but he never knows how many times he will bat before he hits a homerun. He might have two, five, or even ten at-bats before he hits a homerun. Which of the following best describes the schedule of reinforcement that is illustrated in this example?
A.Fixed ratio
B. Fixed interval
C. Variable ratio
D. Variable interval

Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Blooms: Apply
Difficulty: Medium
Learning Objective: 05-04 What are some practical methods for bringing about behaviour change; both in ourselves and in others?
Topic: 05-14 Fixed- and Variable-Interval Schedules: The Passage of Time

In general, you must pay your electric bill on the average of every 30 days. The electric company is reinforced on what type of schedule?
A.Fixed ratio
B. Fixed interval
C. Variable ratio
D. Variable interval

Which schedule of reinforcement results in the fastest response rates?
A.Ratio schedules
B. Continuous reinforcement
C. Interval schedules
D. Arbitrary schedules

Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Blooms: Understand
Difficulty: Easy
Learning Objective: 05-04 What are some practical methods for bringing about behaviour change; both in ourselves and in others?
Topic: 05-14 Fixed- and Variable-Interval Schedules: The Passage of Time

If you wanted to encourage a child to work hard in order to get good grades, which would be your best choice of reinforcement schedule?
A.Variable interval
B. Variable ratio
C. Fixed interval
D. Fixed ratio

Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Blooms: Understand
Difficulty: Medium
Learning Objective: 05-04 What are some practical methods for bringing about behaviour change; both in ourselves and in others?
Topic: 05-14 Fixed- and Variable-Interval Schedules: The Passage of Time

If an employer wants to ensure that work is being done at a steady pace, she should use which of the following schedules of reinforcement?
A.Fixed ratio
B. Variable ratio
C. Fixed interval
D. Variable interval

Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Blooms: Apply
Difficulty: Medium
Learning Objective: 05-04 What are some practical methods for bringing about behaviour change; both in ourselves and in others?
Topic: 05-14 Fixed- and Variable-Interval Schedules: The Passage of Time

Dennis receives a gold star on the days he does his chores. His mother is using which of the following?
A.A fixed ratio for reinforcement
B. A variable ratio for reinforcement
C. A fixed interval for reinforcement
D. A variable interval for reinforcement

Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Blooms: Apply
Difficulty: Medium
Learning Objective: 05-04 What are some practical methods for bringing about behaviour change; both in ourselves and in others?
Topic: 05-14 Fixed- and Variable-Interval Schedules: The Passage of Time

Which of the following is an example of a fixed-interval reinforcement schedule?
A.Each 100^th bottle of Coke has “You Win $1” printed inside the bottle cap.
B. You have to wait 14 days to earn a free soda with a hamburger purchase.
C. Every time you fill up the car with gas, you get a sticker to use toward a car wash.
D. For every two pairs of socks you buy, the store gives you a coupon for a free one.

Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Blooms: Understand
Difficulty: Hard
Learning Objective: 05-04 What are some practical methods for bringing about behaviour change; both in ourselves and in others?
Topic: 05-14 Fixed- and Variable-Interval Schedules: The Passage of Time

A professor encourages office visits by students when his door is propped open but not at other times. The open door in this example serves as which of the following to students in the hallway?
A.Discriminative stimulus
B. Variable-interval reinforce
C. Superstitious reinforce
D. Generalizable response

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Blooms: Apply
Difficulty: Medium
Learning Objective: 05-04 What are some practical methods for bringing about behaviour change; both in ourselves and in others?
Topic: 05-15 Discrimination and Generalization in Operant Conditioning

Which of these is the best example of shaping?
A.A chimpanzee grooms its hair while looking in a mirror.
B. A dog is scolded for scattering newspapers that were on the porch.
C. A fashion model has plastic surgery to rid herself of excess weight and wrinkles.
D. A parent encourages her child to take a first step by praising the child in stages.

Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Blooms: Understand
Difficulty: Medium
Learning Objective: 05-04 What are some practical methods for bringing about behaviour change; both in ourselves and in others?
Topic: 05-15 Discrimination and Generalization in Operant Conditioning

Paul has come to realize that when his boyfriend stops talking to him, then he is mad over something Paul has done. When the boyfriend talks, Paul knows that he has done nothing wrong. Paul’s ability to make these distinctions in his boyfriend’s behaviour is likely based on?
A.Affective habituation
B. Stimulus control training
C. Communicative extinction
D. Latent response learning

It might be difficult, if not impossible, to train a pigeon to wash his food before eating because which of the following?
A.Pigeons eat very rapidly
B. Once food is present, there is no remaining reinforcement
C. The delay caused by washing will decrease behaviour
D. Pigeons are not biologically programmed to wash before they eat

Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Blooms: Understand
Difficulty: Easy
Learning Objective: 05-04 What are some practical methods for bringing about behaviour change; both in ourselves and in others?
Topic: 05-16 Biological Constraints on Learning: You Can’t Teach an Old Dog Just any Trick

Sometimes learned behaviour reverts back to basic biological predispositions. Which psychological perspective offers the most plausible explanation for why this shift occurs?
A.Humanistic
B. Psychodynamic
C. Evolutionary
D. Gestalt

Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Blooms: Understand
Difficulty: Easy
Learning Objective: 05-04 What are some practical methods for bringing about behaviour change; both in ourselves and in others?
Topic: 05-16 Biological Constraints on Learning: You Can’t Teach an Old Dog Just any Trick

Psychologists Keller and Marian Breland were surprised to find which of the following?
A.Raccoon behaviour changed depending on the number of disks which the raccoons were given to place in the bank.
B. Raccoons were concerned by the size of the disk to be placed in the bank.
C. Few raccoons could be taught to place disks in a bank.
D. Raccoons were much better than pigs at placing two disks in a piggy bank.

Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Blooms: Remember
Difficulty: Easy
Learning Objective: 05-04 What are some practical methods for bringing about behaviour change; both in ourselves and in others?
Topic: 05-16 Biological Constraints on Learning: You Can’t Teach an Old Dog Just any Trick

If learning is constrained by biological pre-programming, what will most animals do?
A.Will only be able to learn tasks which they can physically perform.
B. Will require consistent reinforcement to break the biological pre-programmed barrier.
C. Will have limitations in the behaviours which they can learn based on biological constraints.
D. Will be able to learn any behaviour in time.

Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Blooms: Understand
Difficulty: Medium
Learning Objective: 05-04 What are some practical methods for bringing about behaviour change; both in ourselves and in others?
Topic: 05-16 Biological Constraints on Learning: You Can’t Teach an Old Dog Just any Trick

The biological constraints in a species may be closely related to which behaviour?
A.It is paired with a conditioned response.
B. It allows the species to survive.
C. It encourages optimum learning.
D. It removes the greatest number of restrictions.

Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Blooms: Understand
Difficulty: Medium
Learning Objective: 05-04 What are some practical methods for bringing about behaviour change; both in ourselves and in others?
Topic: 05-16 Biological Constraints on Learning: You Can’t Teach an Old Dog Just any Trick

A chimpanzee can be taught to hold a pen in its hand and to scribble with it, but a raccoon cannot, for the chimp has an opposable thumb, which the raccoon lacks. What is this limitation on the raccoon’s ability to learn to scribble with a pen called?
A.A biological constraint
B. Counterconditioning
C. Latent learning
D. Superstitious behaviour

Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Blooms: Apply
Difficulty: Medium
Learning Objective: 05-04 What are some practical methods for bringing about behaviour change; both in ourselves and in others?
Topic: 05-16 Biological Constraints on Learning: You Can’t Teach an Old Dog Just any Trick

Jack’s roommate, Clark has no manners. It is doubtful that he has ever wash dishes and put them away. Clark believes that he is sharing a room with a compulsive neat freak. As students of psychology, they have decided to apply behaviour modification techniques to the problem. What should their first step include?
A.Identifying goals and target behaviours.
B. Selecting a behaviour-change strategy.
C. Keeping careful records after the program is implemented.
D. Designing a data-recording system.

When comparing and contrasting operant and classical conditioning, What would learning psychologist John Donahue argue?
A.Neither kind of conditioning can adequately explain learning in very young infants.
B. Operant conditioning is a superior form of learning to classical conditioning.
C. Operant conditioning works better with humans, and classical conditioning with animals.
D. They are probably more similar than different, sharing underlying processes.

Classical and operant conditioning both result in learning, but how are they quite different?
A.Classical conditioning is an artificial process, while operant conditioning is only found outside of the laboratory.
B. Classical conditioning tends to increase behaviour, while operant conditioning decreases behavior.
C. Classical conditioning broadens the types of responses, while operant conditioning may increase or decrease responses.
D. Classical conditioning is an involuntary process, while operant conditioning is voluntary.

Why is it important to maintain careful records when implementing a behaviour modification program?
A.Because records determine strategy to be used.
B. Because it would be difficult to determine if behaviour had changed successfully without good records.
C. Because the history of a behaviour is necessary for the purposes of social mentoring.
D. Because the manner in which records are kept is reflective of a subject’s dedication to change.

A college student wants to increase the amount of time she spends studying each week, while decreasing the number of hours she spends watching television. Using a program of __________, learning psychologists could help this student to achieve her goal.
A.latent conditioning
B. behaviour modification
C. habituation
D. stimulus control

Martin had never visited of the library; because he never wanted to read a book. This semester his history class requires him to read some original sources which are reserved to read only within the library. Why does he have no difficulty finding the room?
A.He had learned the location through classical conditioning.
B. Because the strong reinforcements provided by the professor escalated his hunting behaviour.
C. He had a cognitive map of the library.
D. He could use trial and error to find the room.

Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Blooms: Apply
Difficulty: Medium
Learning Objective: 05-05 What is the role of cognition and thought in learning?
Topic: 05-18 Latent Learning

“How many interior doors are in your home?” asked the carpenter. Sam thought, “I have never counted them, but there are fourteen.” Why can Mark respond accurately?
A.He consulted the cognitive map in his mind.
B. There should be at least one interior door for each room.
C. He had been conditioned to recall the information.
D. The correct number was reinforcing.

Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Blooms: Understand
Difficulty: Medium
Learning Objective: 05-05 What is the role of cognition and thought in learning?
Topic: 05-18 Latent Learning

Which of the following demonstrates latent learning?
A.Jerry is afraid of bees because she saw his sister bitten by one.
B. Elaine develops a craving for olives when she is pregnant.
C. George hits a base hit in softball when he gets an easy pitch.
D. Newman is able to drive a van after being a passenger in his uncle’s van.

Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Blooms: Understand
Difficulty: Medium
Learning Objective: 05-05 What is the role of cognition and thought in learning?
Topic: 05-18 Latent Learning

People do not always demonstrate the behaviours that they observe. According to Albert Bandura, a social cognitive psychologist, what is the key to demonstrating observed behaviours?
A.Rewards
B. Unconditioned stimuli
C. Stimuli control
D. Habits

Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Blooms: Understand
Difficulty: Medium
Learning Objective: 05-05 What is the role of cognition and thought in learning?
Topic: 05-18 Latent Learning

Roberta often watched her mother cook pasta but never helped to cook it herself. When she moved to her own apartment, Roberta found that she was actually able to make it without difficulty. Roberta demonstrated which type of learning?
A.Partial
B. Latent
C. Secondary
D. Variable

Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Blooms: Apply
Difficulty: Medium
Learning Objective: 05-05 What is the role of cognition and thought in learning?
Topic: 05-18 Latent Learning

Martha had worked as a student assistant for several semesters. Her job was to take notes for students with hearing losses. She was surprised to find that although she had not planned to study certain subjects now that she was taking the class herself many of the concepts came readily to her memory. She realized which of the following?
A.Taking notes do not interfere with learning.
B. Latent learning had occurred.
C. She would not need to buy the textbook.
D. Operant conditioning can occur to the learner and assistant.

Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Blooms: Apply
Difficulty: Medium
Learning Objective: 05-05 What is the role of cognition and thought in learning?
Topic: 05-18 Latent Learning

Suppose that you are dropped off at a large mall without money and merely wander around casually looking at the stores and displays. Later, someone asks for directions to a particular store in the mall. The fact that you can direct the person to the store indicates which of the following has occurred?
A.Behaviour modification
B. Partial learning
C. Stimulus control training
D. Latent learning

Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Blooms: Apply
Difficulty: Medium
Learning Objective: 05-05 What is the role of cognition and thought in learning?
Topic: 05-18 Latent Learning

A widely accepted explanation for latent learning is that the animal or person builds which of the following while exploring his or her surroundings?
A.A cognitive map
B. A cumulative event recorder
C. A higher-order conditioned response
D. A partial reinforcement schedule

Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Blooms: Understand
Difficulty: Medium
Learning Objective: 05-05 What is the role of cognition and thought in learning?
Topic: 05-18 Latent Learning

Which of the following describes the thought process that underlies learning?
A.It was of great interest to behavioural theorists such as John B. Watson and B. F. Skinner.
B. It can be studied in animals when “think aloud” instructions are given.
C. It is the main interest of cognitive learning theorists.
D. It is observed using objective methods of recording.

Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Blooms: Understand
Difficulty: Easy
Learning Objective: 05-05 What is the role of cognition and thought in learning?
Topic: 05-18 Latent Learning

The core of the concept of latent learning involves what main idea?
A.That depression can interfere with the learning of new responses.
B. That actual learning may not be apparent in observable behaviour.
C. That different species have differing capacities to learn different things.
D. That some learning can block the acquisition of other responses.

Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Blooms: Understand
Difficulty: Medium
Learning Objective: 05-05 What is the role of cognition and thought in learning?
Topic: 05-18 Latent Learning

Barry’s brother was always in trouble. By the time he was nine-years-old, Barry had developed a rule of thumb, “If he does it, don’t.” Barry has decided to apply which of the following?
A.Observational learning to his own life.
B. Avoidant behaviour to the situation.
C. Latent learning to the process.
D. Operant conditioning to his own behaviour.

Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Blooms: Apply
Difficulty: Easy
Learning Objective: 05-05 What is the role of cognition and thought in learning?
Topic: 05-19 Observational Learning: Learning Through Imitation

Which statement describes observational learning?
A.Models whose behaviour is rewarded or praised are less likely to be imitated than others who are punished.
B. The model’s behaviour must be remembered by the learner in order for the behaviour to be performed.
C. The behaviour must be rewarded in the learner no more than 20 to 30 seconds after it is observed, or it will not be learned.
D. The model must notice important features of the learner’s behaviour and use that as a basis for training.

Parents are rightfully concerned about who in their community serves as leaders for scout troops, school clubs, or church youth groups because adult leaders serve as __________ whose behaviour may be imitated by the children whom they lead.
A.classical conditioners
B. models
C. counselors
D. psychologists

Martha became interested in interior decorating after watching a television special on the lives of the “rich and famous” in which a Hollywood designer became successful and wealthy. Martha’s desire to become an interior decorator involved which type of learning?
A.Analytic
B. Relational
C. Observational
D. Latent

Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Blooms: Apply
Difficulty: Medium
Learning Objective: 05-05 What is the role of cognition and thought in learning?
Topic: 05-19 Observational Learning: Learning Through Imitation

Rosemary is a 4-year-old girl who watches cartoons in which characters often hit and kick each other. One day, Rosemary’s mother found her pounding a doll as if it were a punching bag. Rosemary’s behaviour is probably the result of what kind of learning?
A.Classical
B. Observational
C. Instrumental
D. Fixed-ratio

Soon after the popular people in her group started to smoke cigarettes, Barb started smoking too. Barb’s behaviour is an example of what kind of learning process?
A.Observational learning
B. Partial extinction
C. Learned helplessness
D. Latent learning

Which of the following best describes observational learning?
A.Always results in a behaviour change.
B. Provides excuses for behaviour.
C. Is always latent.
D. May change behaviour or remain unapplied.

Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Blooms: Understand
Difficulty: Easy
Learning Objective: 05-05 What is the role of cognition and thought in learning?
Topic: 05-19 Observational Learning: Learning Through Imitation

According to which theory does learning occur through a process of watching others perform behaviours for which they are reinforced?
A.Central processing
B. Observational learning
C. Relational thinking
D. Latent learning

A person from which cultural background is least likely to be comfortable with a relational learning style?
A.Caucasian male
B. Native American male
C. Asian American female
D. Caucasian female

Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Blooms: Understand
Difficulty: Medium
Learning Objective: 05-05 What is the role of cognition and thought in learning?
Topic: 05-20 Violence in Television and Video Games: Does the Media’s Message Matter?

What occurs when a person is continuously exposed to aggressive behaviour?
A.Develop super sensitivity to violence and aggression.
B. Become desensitized to violence and aggression.
C. Begin to deny that he/she is a participant.
D. Become addicted to the pain.

Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Blooms: Understand
Difficulty: Easy
Learning Objective: 05-05 What is the role of cognition and thought in learning?
Topic: 05-20 Violence in Television and Video Games: Does the Media’s Message Matter?

John is a caucasian male majoring in astrophysics. When he attacks a problem how will he be most successful?
A.By reviewing the general task before proceeding.
B. After first writing several summary statements concerning the problem.
C. By pulling out each of the component parts and examining their separate functions before moving to their interrelationships.
D. By getting a general grasp of the problem before examining details.

How would a person with a relational learning style be able to acquire new information?
A.By breaking it down into parts.
B. By examining problems as a whole.
C. By talking to other people for advice.
D. By listening rather than seeing.

How are people with an analytical learning style able to acquire new information?
A.By breaking it down into parts.
B. Bu examining problems as a whole.
C. By thinking rather than talking.
D. By seeing rather than listening.

The ten-year-old twin boys have been watching violent television programs and playing aggressive video games since early childhood. Their parents can anticipate that they will do which of the following?
A.Evidence no ill effects from the exposure.
B. Will have greater difficulty with decision making than other children.
C. Display higher levels of aggression that unexposed peers.
D. Be inspired to copycat crimes.

Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Blooms: Apply
Difficulty: Easy
Learning Objective: 05-05 What is the role of cognition and thought in learning?
Topic: 05-20 Violence in Television and Video Games: Does the Media’s Message Matter?

What is a student with an analytical learning style best advised to do?
A.Read the entire chapter before looking into the individual concepts.
B. Examine the parts of each concept and then read the chapter.
C. First view general statements before looking into the details.
D. Allow the overall picture to point out the details.

What Don’t college students who are frequently involved in playing violent video games tend to do?
A.Display more delinquent behaviour.
B. Be more likely to be aggressive.
C. Have lower academic achievement.
D. Reflect more deeply on their emotional regulation.

Which statement supports the position that most authorities in the field agree with regarding watching violent acts?
A.It has no effect on the observer.
B. It increases the likelihood that a violent crime will be committed.
C. It may have positive educational effects.
D. It changes the socioeconomic status of a group of people.

Ellen is learning a new song that she must sing in an upcoming opera. Ellen’s preference is first to listen to the entire song several times before trying to learn any individual sections. Which of the following style of learning best reflected?
A.Analytic
B. Relational
C. Operant
D. Classical

Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Blooms: Apply
Difficulty: Hard
Learning Objective: 05-05 What is the role of cognition and thought in learning?
Topic: 05-20 Violence in Television and Video Games: Does the Media’s Message Matter?

Mary is a member of the college dance team, and she is learning a solo routine for a graduation event. She divides the routine into several parts and practices the first part to perfection before moving on to the second part. She continues this process until she has learned the entire routine. Mary likely has what type of learning style?
A.Analytic
B. Relational
C. Operant
D. Classical

If you have a relational learning style, it would be best for you to which of the following?
A.Read the entire chapter, and then examine each of the concepts which compose the chapter.
B. Examine each of the concepts which compose the chapter, and then read the entire chapter.
C. Outline the chapter before reading it.
D. Look at the headings and words printed in bold before reading the chapter.

Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Blooms: Apply
Difficulty: Medium
Learning Objective: 05-05 What is the role of cognition and thought in learning?
Topic: 05-20 Violence in Television and Video Games: Does the Media’s Message Matter?

Which of the following descriptions is characteristic of the analytical learning style?
A.More task-oriented concerning academics.
B. Prefer to withdraw from unstimulating task performance.
C. Perceive information as part of a total picture.
D. Style conflicts with the traditional school environment.

All of the following describe what is known regarding media violence and viewer aggression EXCEPT which one?
A.Watching television violence has been linked to actual aggression in viewers, but playing violent video games does not have an effect on actual aggression.
B. Viewing violent media appears to lower one’s inhibitions toward acting in aggressive ways, leading to a perception that aggression is an appropriate response.
C. Research suggests that exposure to actual violence increases the likelihood that a person will demonstrate serious violence in the near future.
D. In one study, ¼ of violent young male offenders reported that they had attempted to imitate a crime they had observed in the media.

What is an important basic question regarding violence in the media?
A.Whether viewer numbers are enhanced by the violent content of the shows.
B. Whether it helps viewers to work out their pent-up aggressive urges.
C. Whether viewers act out aggression as a result of the violence seen on TV.
D. Whether the violence triggers guilty feelings the viewers.

Short Answer Questions

How do psychologists define learning? What kinds of behaviours or processes would psychologists say are not examples of learning?

Although there are several theories and perspectives on how learning occurs, psychologists generally define learning as change in the way that an organism behaviours as a result of environmental experiences. Importantly, this behavioural change is relatively permanent. Temporary changes in behaviour, such as when a person is tired or is under the influence of drugs, are not defined as learning. The emphasis on environmental experiences is also fundamental to the definition of learning. Psychologists do not regard changes in behaviour that result from genetic or biological causes as learning. Maturation, for example, occurs when muscular systems strengthen and allow us to engage in new behaviours like walking for the first time. Deciding what is a temporary versus a relatively permanent change in behaviour may be easier than disentangling the biological versus environmental components of behavioural change. Nonetheless, psychologists continue to ask and answer questions about the process of learning.

Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Blooms: Understand
Difficulty: Hard
Learning Objective: 05-01 What is learning?
Topic: 05-01 The Basics of Classical Conditioning

In the case of Pavlov and his dog, identify and describe the following: neutral stimulus, unconditioned stimulus, unconditioned response, conditioned stimulus, and conditioned response.

Before conditioning, there are two unrelated stimuli: the ringing of a bell and meat. We know that normally the ringing of a bell does not lead to salivation but to some irrelevant response, such as pricking up the ears or perhaps a startle reaction. The bell is therefore called the neutral stimulus, because it is a stimulus that, before conditioning, does not naturally bring about the response in which we are interested.
We also have meat, which naturally causes a dog to salivate-the response we are interested in conditioning. The meat is considered an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) because food placed in a dog’s mouth automatically causes salivation to occur. The response that the meat elicits (salivation) is called an unconditioned response (UCR)-a natural, innate, reflexive response that is not associated with previous learning. Unconditioned responses are always brought about by the presence of unconditioned stimuli. When conditioning is complete, the bell has evolved from a neutral stimulus to a conditioned stimulus (CS). At this time, salivation that occurs as a response to the conditioned stimulus (bell) is considered a conditioned response (CR). After conditioning, then, the conditioned stimulus evokes the conditioned response.

Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Blooms: Understand
Difficulty: Medium
Learning Objective: 05-02 How do we learn to form associations between stimuli and responses?
Topic: 05-01 The Basics of Classical Conditioning
Topic: 05-02 Applying Conditioning Principles to Human Behaviour
Topic: 05-03 Extinction

Describe how you could get your friend to take a psychology course, knowing that she has a neutral attitude toward psychology and that jazz music makes her happy.

Knowing that jazz music (UCS) causes your friend to feel happiness (UCR), you can use that as an unconditioned stimulus. You should begin by discussing information that you are learning in your psychology course (neutral stimulus), and seconds later begin playing jazz music (UCS). You should repeat this process for several days so that psychology (now the CS) and jazz music become strongly associated with each other. Over time, talking about psychology should produce happiness in your friend (CR), and this may increase the likelihood that she will take a psychology course in the future.

Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Blooms: Apply
Difficulty: Hard
Learning Objective: 05-02 How do we learn to form associations between stimuli and responses?
Topic: 05-01 The Basics of Classical Conditioning
Topic: 05-02 Applying Conditioning Principles to Human Behaviour
Topic: 05-03 Extinction

Briefly describe the processes of stimulus generalization and discrimination. Why are these processes adaptive for human behaviour?

Stimulus generalization occurs when a stimulus that is similar to a conditioned stimulus produces the conditioned response. In other words, stimuli that are similar to each other often trigger similar responses. Stimulus discrimination occurs when a stimulus that is dissimilar to a conditioned stimulus does not elicit the conditioned response. Generalization and discrimination are routine functions in our lives, and they lead to adaptive responding. A person who becomes sick while eating a hamburger at a restaurant may come to avoid eating hamburgers from all restaurants (generalization). However, this person may continue to eat hotdogs at restaurants because those did not produce illness (discrimination). Learning to avoid similar stimuli and to approach dissimilar stimuli has important adaptive value.

Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Blooms: Understand
Difficulty: Medium
Learning Objective: 05-02 How do we learn to form associations between stimuli and responses?
Topic: 05-04 Generalization and Discrimination
Topic: 05-05 Beyond Traditional Classical Conditioning: Challenging Basic Assumptions

How have psychologists challenged Pavlov’s traditional account of classical conditioning?

Psychologists have challenged Pavlov’s original description of classical conditioning by suggesting that biology influences the ease with which associations may be conditioned.
Learning theorists influenced by cognitive psychology have argued that learners actively develop an understanding and expectancy about which particular unconditioned stimuli are matched with specific conditioned stimuli. A ringing bell, for instance, gives a dog something to think about: the impending arrival of food.
Pavlov implied that all associations may be acquired with more or less equal ease. However, it appears that organisms are biologically prepared to learn certain associations more readily than others. One example is conditioned taste aversion. If a food makes an organism sick, the organism may acquire an association between stimuli associated with the food, such as its appearance or smell, and illness or nausea rapidly, perhaps after a single experience with illness following the food.

Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Blooms: Apply
Difficulty: Medium
Learning Objective: 05-02 How do we learn to form associations between stimuli and responses?
Topic: 05-01 The Basics of Classical Conditioning
Topic: 05-02 Applying Conditioning Principles to Human Behaviour
Topic: 05-03 Extinction

176. Learning theorists influenced by cognitive psychology have argued that learners actively develop an understanding and expectancy about which particular unconditioned stimuli are matched with specific conditioned stimuli. A ringing bell, for instance, gives a dog something to think about: the impending arrival of food.

Students’ examples may vary.
The answer might include examples such as the following:

Parent:

Positive reinforcement. A parent may give a child money for completing household chores, thereby increasing the likelihood that he or she will complete chores in the future.
Negative reinforcement. Following the exemplary completion of a series of chores, a parent might excuse the child from an odious chore he or she may have originally been expected to perform. The child may be more likely in the future to complete his or her chores.
Positive punishment. A parent may reprimand a child harshly for hitting a sibling. The child should be less likely to hit the sibling in the future.
Negative punishment. A parent may send a child to his or her room without dessert if the child throws a tantrum during the evening meal. The child should be less likely to throw tantrums in the future.

Teacher:

Positive reinforcement. A teacher may praise a student for completing an assignment without errors, thereby increasing the likelihood that he or she will complete assignments correctly in the future.
Negative reinforcement. A teacher may eliminate a homework assignment if recent homework has been completed in a timely and accurate fashion; the student’s performance may improve in the future as a result.
Positive punishment. A teacher may write harsh comments on a carelessly done homework assignment, perhaps reducing the likelihood that assignments will be completed sloppily in the future.
Negative punishment. A child may be forced to sit alone in a corner or in the cloakroom if he or she behaves aggressively toward classmates; aggressive behavior should decrease in the future as a result.

Supervisor:

Positive reinforcement. A supervisor may give an employee a value card to a local restaurant or department store following a highly productive week, thereby encouraging future productivity.
Negative reinforcement. A supervisor may grant an employee a personal day or an extended lunch hour for exemplary work performance, encouraging high performance in the future.
Positive punishment. A supervisor may lecture an employee for making an off-color remark to another worker; the employee may be less likely to make such remarks in the future.
Negative punishment. A supervisor may eliminate a perk such as free coffee when employees abuse workplace privileges. Workers should be less likely to abuse privileges in the future.

Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Blooms: Apply
Difficulty: Medium
Learning Objective: 05-03 What is the role of reward and punishment in learning?
Topic: 05-07 The Basics of Operant Conditioning
Topic: 05-08 Reinforcement: The Central Concept of Operant Conditioning
Topic: 05-09 Shaping: Reinforcing What Doesn’t Come Naturally
Topic: 05-10 Positive Reinforcers, Negative Reinforcers, and Punishment

You are the parent of two young children, ages three and five. Going out to public places has become a nightmare. At Wal-Mart, they run through the aisles and grab items from the shelves. They cry so loudly when you attempt to correct them it creates a scene. How would you change the children’s behaviour using classical and operant conditioning? Label your methods using the terms related to these two types of learning.

Operant conditioning should be used. Positive secondary reinforcements to increase quiet and mannerly behaviour could include verbal praise, stickers in a book, or looking for special items together. Positive, primary reinforcers could be candy, gum, a hug, or a trip to McDonald’s. Punishments could be secondary as in verbal correction or primary as in a spanking. The schedule should be a fixed ratio.

Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Blooms: Apply
Difficulty: Hard
Learning Objective: 05-03 What is the role of reward and punishment in learning?
Topic: 05-07 The Basics of Operant Conditioning
Topic: 05-08 Reinforcement: The Central Concept of Operant Conditioning
Topic: 05-09 Shaping: Reinforcing What Doesn’t Come Naturally

You work part-time as a cashier at a check-out stand. Your job would be easier if customers would place frozen items together and soft items which might be damaged last. How would you change the behaviour of your customers? Use the principles of classical and operant conditioning. Label your procedures.

The speed of check out paired with the arrangement of the items, classical conditioning, might result in learning. The cashier could also use operant conditioning by smiling and thanking the customer for arranging the items in a helpful manner. This would be a positive secondary reinforcement. Complaints given directly to the customer would be an example of a positive, secondary punishment to decrease the poor arranging behaviour.

Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Blooms: Apply
Difficulty: Hard
Learning Objective: 05-03 What is the role of reward and punishment in learning?
Topic: 05-01 The Basics of Classical Conditioning
Topic: 05-02 Applying Conditioning Principles to Human Behaviour

Compare and contrast reinforcement and punishment, including the positive and negative types of each. Be sure to provide an example of each one.

Reinforcement and punishment both lead to changes in the likelihood of behaviour occurring. Reinforcement increases the likelihood that a behaviour will be repeated in the future, whereas punishment decreases the likelihood that a behaviour will occur again. There are two types of reinforcement and punishment: positive and negative. Positive reinforcement involves adding a pleasant stimulus to the environment, whereas negative reinforcement involves the removal of an unpleasant stimulus. Both positive and negative reinforcement increase the likelihood that a behaviour will be repeated in the future. An example of positive reinforcement would be offering a child a cookie whenever she completed her homework. Negative reinforcement would occur when the child finishes her homework to avoid being nagged by her parents to do her homework.
Positive punishment involves adding an aversive stimulus to the environment, whereas negative punishment involves the removal of a pleasant stimulus. Both positive and negative punishments decrease the likelihood that a behaviour will be repeated in the future. An example of positive punishment would be spanking a child who fails to finish her homework. Negative punishment would occur when the child is grounded (i.e., freedom is taken away) because she failed to do her homework.

Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Blooms: Apply
Difficulty: Hard
Learning Objective: 05-03 What is the role of reward and punishment in learning?
Topic: 05-08 Reinforcement: The Central Concept of Operant Conditioning
Topic: 05-09 Shaping: Reinforcing What Doesn’t Come Naturally
Topic: 05-10 Positive Reinforcers, Negative Reinforcers, and Punishment

Why do learning psychologists discourage the use of punishment as a means of changing behaviour?

Punishment is effective in quickly changing behaviours that could endanger an individual. For example, punishment may be highly effective in teaching the dangers of a hot stove to a careless child who almost touched a burner. In most other cases, however, punishment is not an effective strategy for behavioural change. In fact, it can do more harm than good. Research has shown that punishment is ineffective if it is not administered soon after an undesired behaviour occurs, or if an individual can escape the punishment. If punishment is physical (e.g., spanking), then a punished individual may come to regard physical aggression as acceptable and to fear the punisher. Additionally, punishment provides information about behaviours that should be avoided in the future, but it does little to help individuals know what behaviours are acceptable or appropriate. Students who are punished for passing personal notes during class may not know what they should be doing instead. They may never learn what they should do, or they may try a variety of undesirable alternatives. For these reasons, psychologists discourage the use of punishment and encourage reinforcement as a more effective way to promote behaviour change.

Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Blooms: Understand
Difficulty: Medium
Learning Objective: 05-03 What is the role of reward and punishment in learning?
Topic: 05-10 Positive Reinforcers, Negative Reinforcers, and Punishment
Topic: 05-11 The Pros and Cons of Punishment: Why Reinforcement Beats Punishment

Why are partial reinforcement schedules more effective than a continuous reinforcement schedule in maintaining a high rate of responding? How does this difference relate to resistance to extinction?

In partial reinforcement, the organism must maintain a higher rate of responding because reinforcement is only provided after a period of time or after a certain number of responses have been performed. In continuous reinforcement, the reinforcement will always be provided, so the organism is guaranteed a reward whenever the desired response is performed. Another reason for the persistence of behavior learned under partial reinforcement is that when reinforcement ceases, this may mean an end to reinforcement or a switch to a noncontinuous schedule. Hence, responses learned under partial reinforcement are more resistant to extinction.

Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Blooms: Understand
Difficulty: Medium
Learning Objective: 05-03 What is the role of reward and punishment in learning?
Topic: 05-12 Schedules of Reinforcement: Timing Life’s Rewards
Topic: 05-13 Fixed- and Variable-Ratio Schedules
Topic: 05-14 Fixed- and Variable-Interval Schedules: The Passage of Time

What are the biological constraints on learning?

The Brelands were animal trainers. They were pleased with themselves when they applied operant learning concepts to their occupation. What their work revealed was that not all behaviours can be trained equally well in all species. There are biological constraints; built in limitations.

Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Blooms: Understand
Difficulty: Medium
Learning Objective: 05-04 What are some practical methods for bringing about behaviour change; both in ourselves and in others?
Topic: 05-16 Biological Constraints on Learning: You Can’t Teach an Old Dog Just any Trick

Design a behaviour modification plan which would improve study habits. Your goal is to increase study time, organize the studying processes, and improve focus and retention.

Analyze the goals; determine the results or grade the student would like to achieve. Maintain a record of behaviour or data. How long does the student study at present, are there interruptions, does the student recall the information after a study session, and is there a system of organization for the study time? Select a procedure for behaviour change, and carefully record change or lack of change. If agreement is made that the student will study for thirty minutes and then test retention, be consistent. Record the results and implement a change, extending to an hour of study, if data indicates the students is ready to do so.

Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Blooms: Apply
Difficulty: Hard
Learning Objective: 05-04 What are some practical methods for bringing about behaviour change; both in ourselves and in others?
Topic: 05-08 Reinforcement: The Central Concept of Operant Conditioning
Topic: 05-09 Shaping: Reinforcing What Doesn’t Come Naturally
Topic: 05-10 Positive Reinforcers, Negative Reinforcers, and Punishment

Describe latent learning and provide an example of it from Tolman’s research with rats.

In latent learning, a new behaviour is learned but not demonstrated until reinforcement is provided for displaying it. Animals and humans seem to develop cognitive maps, or mental representations of spatial locations and directions, through latent learning. But they may not demonstrate any behaviours related to their cognitive map unless they are given sufficient incentive to do so.
Tolman studied latent learning in rats. One group of rats were given the opportunity to wander around a maze once daily for more than two weeks; these rats received no reward during their exploration. Another group of rats explored the same maze for the same period of time, but they were given a reward when they reached the end of the maze. Rats in the first group made many more errors and took longer to find the end of the maze than those in the second group. A third group of rats explored the maze, at first with no reward. After ten days, though, these rats were rewarded when they finished the maze. Even though they seemed to explore aimlessly during the first ten days, the performance of these rats matched that of the rats in the second group once they began receiving rewards. These results suggest that the rats had learned how to run the maze, but they did not demonstrate their learning until they were given an incentive to do so.

Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Blooms: Understand
Difficulty: Hard
Learning Objective: 05-05 What is the role of cognition and thought in learning?
Topic: 05-18 Latent Learning

Using the four processes of observational learning as described by Bandura, how would you teach a friend to drive a car?

Bandura has reported that there are four critical steps in learning through observation.
The first step is to pay attention to a person (model) who can demonstrate the behaviour that we are trying to learn.
The second step is to remember the behaviour that we observe, because we may be unable to practice the behaviour immediately.
The third step is to be able to produce the observed behaviour ourselves; this means that we must have the physical capacity and resources to demonstrate the behaviour.
Last, we must be motivated to demonstrate the behaviour, such as when we anticipate being rewarded in some way.
To teach your friend how to drive through observational learning, you would first want to expose him to a suitable model. You could drive your friend around campus, encouraging him to watch you closely, or you could show him videotapes of someone driving. Next, you want to help your friend remember the basic steps of driving, such as engaging the seatbelt, turning the ignition, stepping on the brake, putting the car in gear, and so on. You must also be sure that your friend is able to produce the behaviours that you have modeled for him. Finally, you should provide some incentive for your friend. After a successful short drive, you may share an ice cream or watch a favourite movie. These steps will increase the likelihood that your friend will learn how to drive.

Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Blooms: Apply
Difficulty: Hard
Learning Objective: 05-05 What is the role of cognition and thought in learning?
Topic: 05-19 Observational Learning: Learning Through Imitation

Is violent behaviour related to viewing violence on television? Support your response.

Violent behaviour may be learned through observational learning. There are cases of “media copycat” killings. Children are exposed to 800, 000 violent acts on network television according to Huston and Mifflin (1998). Male offenders have reported that their crimes were based on their exposure to media violence. Research has shown that college students who frequently play violent video games tend to display greater delinquent behaviour and aggression than their peers. Bombardment with violence and aggression may result in desensitization to violence.

What is the difference between relational and analytical learning styles, and how do these styles vary across culture?

The term learning styles refers to the characteristic way in which people approach learning new information. Some people have a relational learning style. This means that they prefer to learn new material by considering it all at once. They try to understand how pieces of information are connected to the whole, rather than just considering each piece in isolation. Other people have an analytical learning style. They prefer to approach material by assessing its core principles and basic components. Once they have mastered each individual piece, they feel as though they have mastered the whole.
Psychologists have examined how these learning styles vary across culture. Although the data are not conclusive, there is some evidence to suggest that cultures vary in style. Caucasian females and African American, Native American, and Hispanic American males and females are more apt to use a relational style of learning than Caucasian and Asian American males, who are more likely to employ an analytical style. It is important to note that there are probably greater differences among members within the same group than there are between members of two different groups, so these cultural differences should be interpreted with caution.

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