Human Learning 7th Edition by Jeanne Ellis Ormrod Test Bank

Human Learning 7th Edition by Jeanne Ellis Ormrod Test Bank

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CONTENTS

Introduction to the Test Bank . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Perspectives on Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Learning and the Brain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Behaviorist Principles and Theories. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Applications of Behaviorist Principles . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Social Cognitive Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
Introduction to Cognitivism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
Basic Components of Memory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
Long-Term Memory Store and Retrieval Processes .. . . . . . . . . . . . 90
The Nature of Knowledge. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
Cognitive-Developmental Perspectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
Sociocultural Theory and Other Contextual Perspectives . . . . . 135
Metacognition, Self-Regulated Learning, and Study Strategies 154
Transfer, Problem Solving, and Critical Thinking . . . . . . . . . . 168
Motivation and Affect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
Cognitive Factors in Motivation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205

1-15. Integrative Essay Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223

CHAPTER 1

PERSPECTIVES ON LEARNING

Multiple Choice Questions

Human beings undoubtedly learn more during the course of a lifetime than any other species on earth. The major result of this capacity to learn is that:
1. New instincts begin to emerge.
2. Human thought becomes less logical with each generation.
3. Humans can benefit from their experiences.
4. Humans are the only species whose behavior cannot be analyzed in terms of stimuli and responses.

Three of the following are examples of Which one is not?
Abigail cries when she steps on a sharp pebble.
After many hours of heated debate, Brian begins to advocate political practices he has previously opposed.
Cara suddenly recognizes how the division fact “24 ÷ 4 = 6” is related to the multiplication fact “6 x 4 = 24.”
David has been running away from German shepherds ever since he was bitten by a German shepherd two years ago.

Reynelda has trouble tracing a complex shape with a pencil when she is in kindergarten, but she can do it quite well by the time she is in second grade. Is this an instance of learning?
Yes, because her behavior has changed.
No, because the circumstances are too dissimilar.
Maybe, although the change may simply be due to physiological maturation.

Maybe, but only if she is being reinforced for tracing accurately.

Three of the following illustrate various ways that learning might be reflected in a person’s behavior. Which one of the following changes does not necessarily reflect learning?

Although it’s a school night, Dean plays video games until well past his usual bedtime. As he becomes more tired, he finds it increasingly difficult to concentrate on what he’s doing.
Even as a young child, Jerry could tell you that his grandparents immigrated to the United States from Ireland. But after a conversation with his grandmother, he can now describe the circumstances of the family’s immigration in considerable detail.
Day after day, Martin practices his basketball skills (shooting, dribbling, etc.) on a basketball court at a local park. With each practice session, his movements become faster and smoother.
Lewis occasionally asks for help when he has difficulty with his classwork, but most of the time he just struggles quietly on his own. After his teacher assures him that asking for help is not a sign of weakness or inability, he begins asking for help much more frequently.

_____________ research examines learning in tightly controlled settings and ___________ research examines learning in real-world settings.
Applied; Basic
Basic; Qualitative
Qualitative; Applied
Basic; Applied

A principle of learning can best be characterized as:
A description of the results of a particular research study
A statement that describes how a particular factor affects learning
The measurement of how much learning has occurred in a particular situation
An explanation of the underlying processes through which learning occurs

A theory of learning can best be characterized as:
1. A description of the results of a particular research study
2. A statement that describes how a particular factor affects learning
3. The measurement of how much learning has occurred in a particular situation
4. An explanation of the underlying processes through which learning occurs

Three of the following are principles of learning. Which one is a theory of learning rather than a principle?
1. A behavior that is followed by punishment decreases in frequency.
2. People learn by making mental associations between new information and their existing knowledge.
3. A response that is rewarded every time it occurs increases more rapidly than a response that is only occasionally rewarded.
4. Students tend to remember more of a lecture if they take notes on the lecture’s content.

Which one of the following common sayings best reflects the concept of introspection?
1. “Where there’s a will, there’s a way.”
2. “Nothing ventured, nothing gained.”
3. “A penny for your thoughts.”
4. “Old habits die hard.”

Which one of the following common sayings best reflects the basic premise underlying social learning theory?
1. “Monkey see, monkey do.”
2. “Spare the rod and spoil the child.”
3. “A friend in need is a friend indeed.”
4. “A rolling stone gathers no moss.”

Which one of the following statements provides the most credible explanation for the fact that human beings seem to surpass all other animal species in their thinking and learning capacities?
1. Only human beings have the capability to make tools.
2. Humans communicate regularly with one another and, in doing so, pass along what they’ve learned to future generations.
3. Human beings have a huge repertoire of instinctual behaviors from which they can draw when they encounter new experiences.
4. Human brains are smaller than those of other intelligent species (e.g., elephants, dolphins) and therefore can transmit messages more quickly and efficiently.

Behaviorists and cognitivists tend to focus on different aspects of learning. Which one of the following statements best describes this difference?
1. Behaviorism focuses on temporary changes; cognitivism focuses on relatively permanent changes.
2. Behaviorism focuses on relatively permanent changes; cognitivism focuses on temporary changes.
3. Behaviorism focuses on internal mental changes; cognitivism focuses on external behavioral changes.
4. Behaviorism focuses on external behavioral changes; cognitivism focuses on internal mental changes.

Theories are advantageous in several ways. Three of the following describe advantages of learning theories. Which one does not?
1. Theories enable objective, unbiased reporting of research findings.
2. Theories help to condense large bodies of information.
3. Theories help practitioners design interventions that facilitate learning.
4. Theories provide an impetus for new research.

Which one of the following statements is most accurate statement regarding theories of learning?
1. They have been proven to be true.
2. They will eventually be replaced by physiological explanations of how learning occurs.
3. They are often modified as new data emerge.
4. Any theory can be used to explain virtually every instance of learning.

The textbook’s perspective regarding various theories of learning is that:
1. Behaviorist theories are probably more accurate.
2. Cognitivist theories are probably more accurate.
3. There is currently no “right” theory, but one will eventually be developed.
4. Different theories may be applicable in different situations.

Essay Questions

Sometimes we know learning has occurred because the learner engages in a new behavior—one that he or she has never before exhibited. But other kinds of behavior changes may also indicate that learning has taken place. Describe three additional ways in which behavior might change as a result of learning. Give a concrete example to illustrate each one.

Distinguish between principles and theories of learning, and give a specific example of each.

Theories of learning have both advantages and disadvantages. Describe at least two advantages and one disadvantage; in each case, explain the particular effect that the advantage or disadvantage has on the advancement of our understanding of human learning.

CHAPTER 2

LEARNING AND THE BRAIN

Multiple Choice Questions

Which one of the following is the best example of the central nervous system (rather than peripheral nervous system) at work?
1. Parts of the hindbrain are involved in regulating heart rate.
2. Cells in the retina at the back of the eye transmit information about light.
3. Some cells in the nose respond to certain kinds of chemicals.
4. Some cells in the skin are sensitive to heat or cold.

Which one of the following statements most accurately describes a neuron’s threshold of excitation?
1. A neuron responds when it is stimulated by some of its neighboring neurons, but not when it is stimulated by other neighbors.
2. A neuron fires only when its electrical charge reaches a particular level.
3. A neuron is receptive to stimulation from other neurons only at points where there are gaps in its myelin sheath.
4. A neuron will fire at a maximum rate of no more than once every three seconds.

Which one of the following best describes how neurons transmit messages to one another?
1. By stimulating the growth of surrounding glial cells
2. By attaching themselves to the same terminal buttons
3. By fusing the axon of one with a dendrite of the other
4. By sending chemical substances across a tiny gap between them

Which one of the following is the best example of a reflex as psychologists define the term?
1. Going to sleep when you are tired
2. Feeling sad when a close relative dies
3. Pulling your foot away from a painful object
4. Jumping up and down for joy when you get a good grade

Three of the following describe methods what researchers commonly use to determine how the human brain probably functions. Which one is not a commonly used method to study the brain?
1. Documenting the behaviors of people with various kinds of brain injuries
2. Recording brain activity through PET scans, CAT scans, and similar technologies
3. Measuring the levels of various hormones and other substances in the blood
4. Removing a certain part of an animal’s brain and observing the animal’s subsequent behaviors

After a severe head injury, Mary has exceptional difficulty setting goals and in other ways planning her actions. Without knowing anything else about Mary’s injury, you might reasonably conclude that it affected her:
1. forebrain
2. midbrain
3. hindbrain
4. reticular formation

Given how the left and right hemispheres of the brain typically specialize, which one of the following activities would be most heavily dependent on the right hemisphere?
1. Writing a speech for a political campaign
2. Following the logic of a persuasive argument
3. Solving for x in a complex algebraic equation
4. Recognizing human forms in a Picasso painting

Given the roles that the right hemisphere typically plays in language comprehension, which one of the following tasks would rely most heavily on the right hemisphere?
1. Hearing the rhyme in the words hypocrisy and democracy
2. Writing precise definitions of abstract words such as hypocrisy and democracy
3. Realizing that “That blonde is really hot” has as least two possible meanings
4. Translating Leo Tolstoy’s novel War and Peace into English

Given what psychologists believe to be true about how information is typically stored in the brain, how is the concept dog probably represented in your brain?
1. As a single neuron located in the prefrontal cortex
2. As a network of neurons spread across multiple brain regions
3. As a cluster of interconnected neurons located in the left parietal lobe
4. As a cluster of interconnected neurons located in one of the occipital lobes

Which one of the following best describes the growth of neurons during the prenatal period?
1. An overabundance of neurons emerges early in prenatal development, but about half of the neurons die before birth.
2. Neurons continue to be generated at a rapid rate throughout the last six months of the prenatal period.
3. Neurons begin to develop in the fifth month of pregnancy, and they proliferate rapidly during the third trimester.
4. Neurons that will support basic physiological functioning appear in the first two months after conception; those that will be responsible for higher-level thinking processes don’t appear until two or three months before birth.

In the human brain, a great deal of synaptic pruning occurs in early childhood. This pruning appears to be:
1. The unfortunate result of insufficiently stimulating home environments
2. An adaptive process that allows children to deal more efficiently with their environment
3. Due to an imbalance of important nutrients, and especially to low levels of the B vitamins in many children’s diets
4. Reflective of the fact that the forebrain is slowly taking over responsibility for functions that have previously been regulated by the hindbrain and midbrain

As children grow older, many of their neurons begin to transmit messages more rapidly than they did in the early years of life, thanks to:
1. synaptic pruning
2. synaptogenesis
3. myelination
4. maturation of the limbic system

During the elementary and secondary school years, much of the brain’s development occurs in regions of the brain that are largely responsible for
1. thinking and reasoning
2. generation of emotional responses
3. muscular strength and coordination
4. making discriminations among highly similar stimuli

John is an adolescent who makes impulsive decisions (e.g., ditching school) and engages in risky behavior (e.g., driving well over the speed limit). His behavior can best be explained by which of the following?
1. Adolescents have limited concepts of consequences and punishment.
2. Adolescents’ brain stems are still not fully developed, and will not be until middle adulthood.
3. Adolescents’ pre-frontal cortices are still not fully developed and will not be until their late teens and early twenties.
4. During adolescence, synaptic pruning has stopped.

According to the textbook, which one of the following conclusions is most true regarding factors that influence brain development?
1. Genetic factors have the strongest influence on brain development, particularly later in life.
2. Environmental factors and people’s experiences have the strongest influence on brain development in middle childhood.
3. Together, brain development is shaped by genetic and environmental factors throughout the life span.
4. Environmental factors are particularly influential in abnormal brain development.

Three of the following statements are consistent with research findings about factors that influence brain development. Which statement has not been supported by research?
1. Genetic factors predispose some people to learning difficulties or mental illness.
2. High levels of alcohol consumption during pregnancy can lead to mental retardation.
3. High levels of toxic substances (e.g., lead, pesticides) have their greatest negative impact after puberty.
4. Opportunities to learn certain skills may lead to detectable differences in brain structures or patterns of brain activation.

In which one of the following situations should we be most concerned about missing a critical period in a person’s development?
1. Rachel is born with a cataract in her left eye that is surgically removed when she is 8 years old.
2. Phoebe doesn’t learn how to write until she is 12 years old.
3. Although Ross knows how to count, he gets no formal instruction in mathematics until he is 15.
4. Joey has his first tennis lesson when he is 25.

Which one of the following best exemplifies experience-expectant plasticity?
1. Learning how to play the guitar
2. Mastering one’s native language
3. Understanding abstract ideas in philosophy
4. Applying principles of psychology to real-world settings

Which one of the following best exemplifies experience-dependent plasticity?
1. Hearing subtle differences in similar-sounding words
2. Learning how to pronounce words like a native speaker
3. Learning syntactical structures of one’s native language
4. Learning how to read

Which one of the following research findings is most consistent with the concept of core knowledge as described in the textbook?
1. Children must have basic knowledge of numbers and counting before they can master arithmetic operations such as addition and multiplication.
2. Some motor skills are prerequisites for others; for example, children must learn how to walk before they can learn how to run or skip.
3. Some linguistic knowledge is prerequisite to other knowledge; for example, children must know how to read before they can learn how to write.
4. Very young infants appear to have more knowledge of the physical world than they could have acquired from their own, limited experiences with objects.

Which one of the following best describes mirror neurons?
1. They are pairs of neurons that have identical functions on opposite sides of the cortex.
2. They are the primary reason why infants can recognize their own reflections as early as 3 months of age.
3. They fire when a person either makes a particular response or observes someone else make that response.
4. They are the only kinds of neurons that are consistently found in all primate species.

Which one of the following best describes psychologists’ current beliefs about the brain and learning?
1. Learning involves changes in synapses and possibly also involves the growth of new neurons and astrocytes.
2. Large doses of certain vitamins promote brain growth and lead to more rapid learning.
3. Left-hemisphere-dominant individuals are, on average, more effective learners than right-hemisphere-dominant individuals.
4. The brains of rapid learners are about 20% larger than the brains of slower learners.

Naomi wakes up several hours after a severe blow to her head has rendered her unconscious. She can remember nothing about events leading up to the incident, reflecting the importance of _____________ in learning and memory.
1. neurogenesis
2. consolidation
3. a critical period
4. the corpus callosum

According to the textbook, which one of the following conclusions is most warranted from research on brain development?
1. To become truly skilled in such domains as art and music, children should begin systematic instruction in these domains before the age of five.
2. The ability to think abstractly depends on the development of many synaptic connections during the first five years of life.
3. Children probably won’t acquire the basic skills essential to succeed in the adult world (e.g., reading, writing, math) unless they begin developing those skills in the early elementary grades at the latest.
4. Classroom experiences can significantly enhance people’s cognitive development throughout the elementary, secondary, and post-secondary school years.

Essay Questions

The textbook describes five general research methods that scientists use to determine how the brain functions. In three short paragraphs, describe three of them.

Several teachers tell you that they are “teaching to students’ right brains” by spending a lot of time on painting, map interpretation, geometry, and other highly visual and/or spatial activities. Critique their claim using what you have learned about how the human brain functions.

Someone tries to convince you that parents should put their children in enriching preschool environments by their second birthday at the latest. How would you respond to this individual? In your response:
1. State whether you agree or disagree with the person.
2. Defend your position given recent findings about brain development. Include the following concepts in your discussion:
  1. synaptogenesis
  2. synaptic pruning

experience-expectant and experience-dependent plasticity

CHAPTER 3

BEHAVIORIST PRINCIPLES AND THEORIES

Multiple Choice Questions

Which one of the following statements best describes the view of early behaviorists about how learning can best be studied?
1. Psychologists can determine how learning occurs only if they can identify its physiological basis.
2. Introspection—reporting what and how one is thinking—is likely to yield the most accurate results.
3. To study learning scientifically, researchers must confine their investigations to animal research in a laboratory setting.
4. The study of learning will be more objective and scientific if only observable events are considered.

When behaviorists describe an organism as a “black box,” they mean that:
1. Many stimuli have no noticeable effect on the organism.
2. Learning processes occurring within the organism cannot be studied scientifically.
3. Learning is, by its very nature, something that takes place outside the organism.
4. An organism makes many responses even in the absence of any observed external stimulus.

Which one of the following statements best reflects behaviorists’ notion of tabula rasa (“blank slate”)?
1. Organisms inherit few predispositions to behave in particular ways; instead, the behaviors they exhibit are largely the result of environmental experiences.
2. Stimuli that occur after responses are made are usually more influential on an organism’s learning that stimuli that occur before responses are made.
3. The things that organisms learn in a new situation largely override the things that they’ve learned in previous situations; as a result, newly learned behaviors often replace previously learned behaviors.
4. Learning is more a function of what the environment does to the organism than of what the organism does to the environment; in other words, the organism plays a relatively passive role in the learning process.

Ivan Pavlov conducted a series of studies that led him to propose his theory of classical conditioning. In these studies, Pavlov observed how a dog learned to:
1. Bark when meat was presented
2. Bark when meat was taken away
3. Wake up when an auditory stimulus (e.g., a bell) was presented
4. Salivate to a simple stimulus such as a light or bell

Classical conditioning typically occurs when:
1. A response is followed by two stimuli
2. A response is followed by a single aversive stimulus
3. Two stimuli are presented at about the same time
4. Two responses occur (usually coincidentally) at about the same time

Which one of the following responses is most likely to be learned through classical conditioning?
1. Feeling anxious around horses
2. Taking a walk on a nice day
3. Doing homework
4. Waving to a friend

When Julie’s father comes home from work he opens the front door and picks her up to give her a big hug. Before long, Julie starts smiling whenever she hears her father turn his key to open the door. In this situation, Julie’s smiling at the sound of her father’s key turning in the door is a(n) _____; the hugging is a(n) _____.
1. unconditioned stimulus; conditioned response
2. unconditioned response; conditioned stimulus
3. conditioned stimulus; unconditional response
4. conditioned response; unconditional stimulus

After repeatedly being hugged by her father when he comes through the door, Julie begins to smile when she hears a key turning to open the door opening by any person. Julie’s behavior can be explained by:
1. spontaneous recovery
2. generalization
3. higher-order conditioning
4. stimulus discrimination

Gina became ill after eating Turkey on Thanksgiving and was unable to look at Turkey without feeling ill for two months. However, during that two-month period Gina was able to look at chicken without feeling ill. Gina’s behavior when presented with chicken is explained by:
1. Generalization
2. extinguishing a conditioned response
3. stimulus discrimination
4. counterconditioning

At the dentist’s office, Teresa has a painful experience that leaves her tense and fearful. The next time her mother brings her to the dentist’s office, Teresa begins to get tense and anxious. In this situation, the dentist and dentist’s office are _____; Teresa’s fear of pain is a(n) _____.
1. unconditioned stimuli; conditioned response
2. unconditioned responses; conditioned stimulus
3. conditioned stimuli; unconditioned response
4. conditioned responses; unconditioned stimulus

After a painful experience at one dentist’s office, Teresa’s mother takes Teresa to a different dentist, who takes great care to make her visits painless. Teresa is anxious at first, but after a few visits, Teresa gradually becomes less resistant about going to the new dentist. Teresa’s change in behavior can probably best be explained in terms of _____. But then Teresa doesn’t go to see the dentist again until three years later. On her first visit to the painless dentist after that time interval, she is anxious once again, even though she had not been anxious in her previous visits. The return of this response after it had previously disappeared is known as _____.
1. extinction; spontaneous recovery
2. generalization; discriminative learning
3. higher-order conditioning; discriminative learning
4. generalization; higher-order conditioning

Jacob is suffering from a mild case of flu and, as a result, is feeling a bit nauseous. He decides that he needs to eat something to keep up his strength, so he gets out of bed, puts on a heavy sweater to keep himself warm, heats up a bowl of leftover chili, and settles down in an easy chair to watch a television game show while he eats. A few days later, after Jacob has recovered from the flu, one of the stimuli in the situation just described elicits a feeling of nausea. With the phenomenon of associative bias in mind, choose the stimulus that is most likely to elicit nausea.
1. The sweater
2. The chili
3. The easy chair
4. The television game show

Paul is usually successful on the math problems his teacher assigns at school, although he occasionally fails on one or two problems. In contrast, Peter’s experiences with mathematics are almost always associated with frustration and failure. Considering contemporary views of the roles of contiguity and contingency in classical conditioning, who will acquire classically conditioned anxiety regarding mathematics?
1. Both Paul and Peter will develop a considerable degree of mathematics anxiety.
2. Only Paul will develop math anxiety, because the relationship between math and failure is unpredictable.
3. Only Peter will develop math anxiety, because whenever math is presented, failure always follows.
4. Neither Paul nor Peter will develop math anxiety, because neither situation reflects contingency of the CS and UCS.

If students associate failure with punishment, and then associate playing sports with failure, they may begin to fear playing sports through a process of:
1. generalization
2. spontaneous recovery
3. higher-order conditioning
4. stimulus discrimination

Which one of the following best describes contemporary theorists’ perspective on classical conditioning?
1. Cognitive factors, such as mental representations of stimuli and predictions that organisms make, must often be considered in addition to observable stimuli and responses.
2. Despite Pavlov’s early findings to the contrary, higher-order conditioning and generalization seldom occur.
3. Classical conditioning typically occurs only in conjunction with operant conditioning; for example, conditioned stimuli elicit conditioned responses only when those responses are followed by reinforcement.
4. Classical conditioning occurs primarily in artificial laboratory conditions; it rarely occurs in more naturalistic, real-life settings.

David is addicted to a drug that increases his blood sugar level, temporarily giving him more energy. David always takes this drug in the bathroom. He finds that he becomes tired when he enters the bathroom and also that he needs more and more of the drug to maintain the same high energy level. From the perspective of classical conditioning, which one of the following is the most likely explanation of David’s increasing addiction to the drug?
1. Lowering blood sugar level to counteract the effect of the drug has become a conditioned response to the “bathroom” stimulus.
2. David has learned to respond to some drugs but not to others through the combined processes of stimulus discrimination and higher-order conditioning.
3. Taking the drugs provides negative reinforcement, in that David no longer feels tired.
4. Associative bias has predisposed David to associate the bathroom with fatigue.

Extinction is one method of eliminating undesirable conditioned responses, but there are several problems associated with its use. Which one is not a problem encountered in using extinction?
1. Some responses extinguish slowly, if at all.
2. Extinguished responses may reappear through spontaneous recovery.
3. Extinction often occurs too quickly to be controlled.
4. Organisms tend to stay away from stimuli they have learned to fear, thus preventing their exposure to the conditioned stimulus in the absence of the unconditioned stimulus.

After being bitten by a neighbor’s dog, Kathy is now afraid of the puppy her family has just adopted. Kathy’s father gives Kathy a hot fudge sundae; then, while she is happily eating it, he brings the puppy about fifteen feet from where she is sitting. On each successive day, Kathy gets another ice cream treat, and her father brings the puppy a little closer than he did on the previous day. Eventually Kathy is able to pet and enjoy the new puppy. Kathy’s father is using a procedure known as:
1. generalization
2. stimulus discrimination
3. extinction
4. counterconditioning

Nick is extremely anxious whenever he takes a test. From a classical conditioning perspective, a teacher can best reduce his anxiety by:
1. Giving him a few extremely difficult tests at first, and then gradually giving him easier ones
2. Giving him a few easy tests while he is feeling relaxed
3. Reinforcing him for each test question he answers correctly
4. Reassuring him that he can do well if he tries hard

Which one of the following educational practices is most clearly derived from behaviorist principles?
1. Having students make overt responses
2. Teaching students how to apply information
3. Asking students to generate questions about what they read
4. Presenting information in a logical sequence that stresses interrelationships among idea

Thorndike’s original law of effect described the ways in which the learning of a response:
1. has an effect on other organisms
2. has an effect on stimuli in the environment
3. has an effect on other responses
4. is affected by the consequences of that response

A child who was once spanked for running into a busy street no longer runs into the street. This can best be explained by which one of the following?
1. Pavlov’s concept of extinction
2. Thorndike’s original law of effect
3. Thorndike’s revised law of effect
4. Skinner’s basic principle of operant conditioning

Loosigian is worried about Jerri, a girl who is struggling in his seventh grade class. He thinks about several different reasons why she might be having so much difficulty with her schoolwork. Which one of the possible reasons that he considers is consistent with a behaviorist perspective of learning?
1. “Maybe she isn’t paying attention as much as she should be.”
2. “Maybe I don’t praise her enough when she does something well.”
3. “Maybe she has trouble understanding the things she reads.”
4. “Maybe she has trouble remembering things from one day to the next.”

When Lily is presented with money after many different behaviors (e.g., cleaning her room, getting a good grade or eating her vegetables) she is more likely to perform each of those behaviors. The fact that this single reinforcer (i.e., money) can increase many of Lily’s behaviors is explained by:
1. Classical conditioning
2. Instrumental conditioning
3. Transituational generality
4. Secondary reinforcement theory

Six-year-old Jack has recently learned to appreciate the value of money, so his father assigns him some simple housekeeping chores to be performed throughout the week. He tells Jack that completion of these chores will earn him an allowance of one dollar every Saturday. Jack rarely completes his chores. From an operant conditioning perspective, which one of the following is most likely to be the reason why Jack is not doing his chores?
1. There is a delay in reinforcement.
2. Reinforcement is not contingent on the desired response.
3. Money is rarely an effective reinforcer for people.
4. The “reinforcer” is presented before the response.

Smart tells his students that they can do whatever they want for the first ten minutes of class but must then turn their attention to the day’s assignment. The students are delighted with their ten minutes of free time but they don’t attend to the assignment when it’s time to do so. From an operant conditioning perspective, what mistake has Mr. Smart made?
1. There is a delay in reinforcement.
2. He has used negative reinforcement instead of positive reinforcement.
3. Free time is not an effective reinforcer for the students.
4. The “reinforcer” is presented before the response.

Classical conditioning and operant conditioning are two learning paradigms within the behaviorist tradition. A major difference between these two paradigms is that:
1. Classical conditioning deals almost exclusively with stimuli, whereas operant conditioning deals almost exclusively with responses.
2. Classical conditioning deals almost exclusively with responses, whereas operant conditioning deals almost exclusively with stimuli.
3. Classically conditioned responses are voluntary, whereas responses learned through operant conditioning are elicited by specific stimuli.
4. Classically conditioned responses are elicited by specific stimuli, whereas responses learned through operant conditioning are voluntary.

Which one of the following is a primary reinforcer?
1. A cookie
2. A good grade
3. A thousand dollars
4. A feeling of pride about a job well done

Good grades are reinforcing to some children but not to others. Someone explaining this fact from an early operant conditioning perspective would say that good grades are most likely to be reinforcers to children who:
1. Have never received a grade above C
2. Come from middle-income or upper-income backgrounds
3. Have previously associated those grades with primary reinforcers
4. Have been told that good grades are important for getting a college scholarship

Bill’s behaviors in Ms. Kennedy’s class are really distracting to other students. For example, he whispers to the boy beside him when Ms. Kennedy is giving directions on how to do any assignment. He flings paper clips at a girl across the room. He makes strange grunting noises that a few classmates find amusing. Ms. Kennedy glares at him or admonishes him whenever he behaves in a distracting way, yet his inappropriate behaviors are increasing rather than decreasing. Which one of the following interpretations of this situation best explains why Bill’s behaviors are increasing?
1. Kennedy is positively reinforcing him for the distracting behaviors.
2. Kennedy is negatively reinforcing him for the distracting behaviors.
3. Kennedy is vicariously reinforcing him for the distracting behaviors.
4. Kennedy is punishing him for the distracting behaviors.

Which one of the following is the best example of a social reinforcer?
1. Getting a new outfit you think is “cool”
2. Being allowed to play basketball at a friend’s house after you finish your homework
3. Being told that you did a good job
4. Feeling good about your own generosity toward a less fortunate classmate

Which one of the following is the best example of intrinsic reinforcement?
1. Getting a new outfit you think is “cool”
2. Being allowed to play basketball at a friend’s house after you finish your homework
3. Being told that you did a good job
4. Feeling good about your own generosity toward a less fortunate classmate
Feedback about one’s performance is most likely to be effective when it:
1. Is given after a short delay (perhaps 30 minutes after the performance)
2. Describes only the things that the person has done correctly
3. Comes from a peer rather than from an authority figure
4. Provides information about how to improve

Which one of the following is an example of negative reinforcement?
1. When Kevin does his homework, his teacher praises him profusely, to the point that it embarrasses him.
2. When Kathleen insults another student while waiting in line for lunch, her teacher moves her to the end of the line.
3. When Lucas complains about a classmate who is picking on him, his teacher allows him to come in from recess on bitterly cold days.
4. When Priscilla answers a teacher’s question incorrectly, Mike teases her unmercifully.

David’s mother insists that he vacuum the living room carpet. But when she sees how haphazardly he vacuums (he misses two-thirds of the carpet), she tells him, “Never mind, I’ll do it!” David’s escape of household chores:
1. positively reinforced
2. negatively reinforced
3. punished
4. an example of passive avoidance learning

Which one of the following best illustrates Skinner’s concept of superstitious behavior?
1. Alice is praised for her accurate bookkeeping at work. After that, she continues to keep accurate books at work. She also begins to be more careful about balancing her personal checkbook each month, even though she receives no reinforcement for doing so.
2. Bradley thinks his reinforcement for cleaning his apartment is the good feeling that a clean place gives him. In reality, he cleans only when company is coming, and it is his company that makes him feel good.
3. Charlotte misinterprets a teacher’s praise as sarcasm and therefore as punishment rather than reinforcement.
4. David usually struggles with his geography exams, but he recently got high scores on two occasions when he wore a Denver Broncos sweatshirt to school. He now wears his Broncos sweatshirt whenever a geography test is scheduled.

Imagine that you want to improve a distractible child’s ability to sit still and listen in class. Which one of the following procedures illustrates how you might use shaping to do so?
1. Explain the purpose of sitting quietly before reinforcement begins.
2. Reinforce the child for sitting still on some occasions, but not on others.
3. Reinforce the child for sitting still and listening for only a minute, then for progressively longer and longer periods of time.
4. Frequently change the specific consequence you use to reinforce sitting still-and-listening behavior (e.g., you might use candy a few times, then praise, then privileges, and so on).

A ski instructor is teaching a class of beginning skiers how to do a snowplow turn. She first teaches her students to stand with the fronts of their skis together and the backs of their skis far apart. She then has her students bend their knees slightly and lean forward in this “snowplow” position. After the students can do these two things successfully, the instructor has them add more behaviors to the sequence: gliding across the side of a gentle slope in a snowplow, putting their body weight on the downhill ski, gradually turning downhill, and so on. The instructor praises her students each time they successfully add a new movement to the sequence. In behaviorist terminology, the procedure that the ski instructor is using can best be described as:
1. the Premack principle
2. chaining
3. a differential schedule of reinforcement
4. higher-level conditioning

Note: Questions 39 and 40 both refer to the same situation.

Warren has earned himself a reputation for being the class clown. His teacher, Ms. Washington, used to laugh at Warren’s funny remarks, but is now trying to discourage Warren’s disruptive behavior by ignoring his jokes. In behaviorist terminology, Ms. Washington is now trying to modify Warren’s joke-telling behavior through:
1. stimulus discrimination
2. extinction
3. shaping
4. negative reinforcement

Washington tries to ignore Warren when he tells jokes in class. But sometimes Warren tells a joke so funny that Ms. Washington laughs in spite of herself. Rather than decreasing his joke-telling, Warren begins telling even more outrageous jokes. Inadvertently, Ms. Washington is modifying Warren’s joke-telling behavior through:
1. stimulus discrimination
2. extinction
3. shaping
4. negative reinforcement

In the basement of Marcy’s college dormitory is a Coke machine that dispenses a can of Coke whenever someone firmly pounds the side of the machine. Marcy is delighted when she discovers this fact, because she can now get Cokes from the machine without having to pay for them. One morning a repairman fixes the machine. The next time Marcy goes to get a soft drink from the machine, she finds that her usual pounding strategy doesn’t yield her the Coke she wants. But rather than insert the required coins to purchase a drink, Marcy begins pounding the side of the machine vigorously for several minutes. In behaviorist terminology, Marcy’s behavior at this point can best be described as:
1. an extinction burst
2. discrimination
3. shaping
4. a response reinforced by an activity reinforcer

Tiffany is a hyperactive child who rarely sits still for more than 30 seconds at a time. Ms. Garcia decides to use positive reinforcement to help Tiffany learn to sit quietly in her seat during class time. Which one of the following approaches will bring about the fastest change in Tiffany’s behavior?
1. a variable ratio schedule of reinforcement
2. a variable interval schedule of reinforcement
3. continuous reinforcement
4. a fixed ratio schedule of reinforcement

John and Bill have both learned that when they whine and complain, their teacher will hurry over to see what’s wrong. John’s teacher gives him attention every time he complains. However, Bill’s teacher gives him attention only on some of the occasions he complains. Both teachers eventually realize that they are reinforcing the boys for inappropriate behavior and so both stop attending to the boys when they whine and complain. From a behaviorist perspective, we can predict that:
1. Both boys will whine and complain even more than before.
2. Both boys will stop their whining and complaining almost immediately.
3. Bill’s complaining will decrease more rapidly than John’s.
4. John’s complaining will decrease more rapidly than Bill’s.

At the beginning of the school year, Mr. Webber is concerned that Frances rarely does her independent seatwork. He begins praising Frances for each seatwork assignment she completes, and by January she is completing her assignments regularly. To make sure that the behavior continues in the years to come, what would behaviorists tell Mr. Webber to do now?
1. Praise her more often than before.
2. Praise her for only some of her completed assignments.
3. Punish Frances when she doesn’t complete an assignment.
4. Switch from a social reinforcer to an activity reinforcer.

George has learned that if he pesters his father about using the family Cadillac enough times, his father will eventually break down and give George the keys to the Cadillac. George’s “pestering” behavior is apparently being reinforced on a ___________ schedule.
1. variable ratio
2. variable interval
3. fixed interval
4. differential rate of low responding

McDonald wants his students to ask him for help on their geometry problems only after they have tried to solve the problems independently for at least five minutes. Mr. McDonald should reinforce students’ help-seeking behavior on a ___________ schedule.
1. fixed ratio
2. variable ratio
3. differential rate of low responding
4. differential rate of high responding

Lori has learned that when she wants to say something in class, she must raise her hand before doing so. At home, however, she speaks without ever raising her hand ahead of time. We can say that the classroom has become a(n) ____ for Lori’s hand-raising behavior.
1. generalized stimulus
2. antecedent stimulus
3. positive stimulus
4. negative reinforce

Sharon has learned that her language arts teacher answers her questions willingly but that her biology teacher discourages questions. Sharon therefore asks questions in language arts but not in biology. In behaviorist terminology, Sharon is:
1. on a differential rate of low responding schedule
2. showing generalization
3. on a fixed interval schedule
4. under stimulus control

A teacher claps his hands together loudly three times as a way of reminding his students that they need to talk more quietly during their free time at the end of the day. In behaviorist terminology, his strategy can best be described as:
1. cueing
2. an intermittent schedule
3. negative reinforcement
4. a setting event

A teacher wants to encourage her students to work cooperatively with one another as they study classroom subject matter. If she were to use the concept of a setting event to encourage such cooperative behavior, she would:
1. Praise her students when they cooperate with one another.
2. First give students a task in which they can’t work with one another.
3. Say “I like how Sally and John are helping one another today” loudly enough that other students can hear.
4. Provide instructional materials that students can use only by working together.

Mark’s previous girlfriend always told him how handsome he looked whenever he wore his green sweater. Tonight Mark is going out with a new girlfriend and puts on the same green sweater. In behaviorist terminology, Mark is:
1. on a differential rate of low responding schedule
2. showing generalization
3. on a fixed interval schedule
4. showing stimulus discrimination

A physics teacher wants her students to work on several difficult physics problems that involve calculating velocity, acceleration, or time using the formula v = a ´ t. The teacher first has her students work on a few easy problems involving the formula. She then presents the more difficult problems; when she does so, she finds that her students are reasonably persistent in working at the problems, and most of them eventually solve the problems correctly. By using the easy problems to promote persistence in her students during the more difficult ones, the teacher is, in behaviorist terminology, using the concept of:
1. cueing
2. behavioral momentum
3. a DRL schedule
4. a DRH schedule

Mandy has learned that whenever her father comes home drunk, he is likely to yell at her, so she usually goes to her friend’s house before he has the chance. In this situation, the father’s coming home drunk is:
1. Punishment I
2. Punishment II
3. An unconditioned stimulus
4. A pre-aversive stimulus

Martin went to two or three school dances but felt uncomfortable and self-conscious at them. Martin no longer goes to school dances. His lack of attendance is an example of:
1. Passive avoidance learning
2. Active avoidance learning
3. Punishment I
4. Punishment II

Which one of the following statements best describes behaviorists’ two-step theory of avoidance learning?
1. Avoidance of the aversive stimulus is negatively reinforced by the presence of the pre-aversive stimulus.
2. Remaining in the situation is punished by the aversive stimulus; avoiding it is positively reinforced by the pre-aversive stimulus.
3. Fear of the pre-aversive stimulus is classically conditioned, and escape from that stimulus is negatively reinforced.
4. Escape responses occur prior to avoidance responses.

An avoidance behavior of a previously aversive situation is particularly difficult to extinguish because:
1. It has typically been reinforced on a fixed ratio schedule.
2. It has typically been reinforced on a variable ratio schedule.
3. It has typically been reinforced on a variable interval schedule.
4. The learner has no opportunity to learn that the situation is no longer aversive.

Which one of the following alternatives best describes instrumental conditioning?
1. Learning to use man-made tools in order to accomplish difficult tasks more easily
2. Learning to behave in ways that either bring pleasure or reduce the likelihood of aversive events
3. Learning that certain stimuli in one’s environment often bring either physical or psychological pain
4. Learning complex sequences of psychomotor behaviors (e.g., dribbling and then shooting a basketball)

Which one of the following is the best example of punishment as behaviorists define it?
1. Kelly has been acting up in the classroom all year. Her teacher’s frequent reprimands haven’t made much of a difference in Kelly’s behavior.
2. Leo is a real distraction to his classmates, often burping in a way that makes other students laugh. His teacher places him in a corner where others can’t hear him burping.
3. Whenever Marvin has trouble sitting still, his teacher has him run up and down the hall three times to release pent-up energy.
4. After Nora spends a few minutes in the time-out room for hurting a classmate’s feelings, she is more careful not to hurt her peers’ feelings in the future.

Which one of the following accurately describes the difference between negative reinforcement and punishment?
1. Negative reinforcement is essentially the same as punishment, but without the negative connotations that punishment has.
2. Negative reinforcement increases the frequency of behavior, whereas punishment decreases it.
3. Negative reinforcement always decreases the frequency of behavior, whereas punishment often increases it.
4. Both consequences decrease behavior, but punishment is more likely to make students angry and defiant.

DeeDee is upset that she has been taken off the basketball team because of a failing grade in her history class. The consequence of DeeDee’s failure in history is an example of:
1. Positive reinforcement
2. Negative reinforcement
3. Punishment I
4. Punishment II

Tammy is scolded for submitting a messy math homework paper, so she tries to do her math problems more neatly after that. The scolding Tammy received is an example of:
1. Positive reinforcement
2. Negative reinforcement
3. Punishment I
4. Punishment II

Which one of the following statements best describes research findings regarding the effectiveness of verbally reprimanding (e.g., scolding) children?
1. Reprimands rarely reduce inappropriate behavior.
2. Reprimands are more effective when they’re brief and unemotional.
3. Reprimands are effective only when they embarrass children to some extent.
4. Severe reprimands are more effective than mild ones.

Julie gets very upset when her mother will not let her help her bake cookies. Julie yells at her mother and throws flour all over the kitchen. Julie’s mother makes Julie clean up all of the flour and do all of the dishes Julie’s mother created from baking the cookies. Her mother’s punishment was a form of:
1. Positive-practice overcorrection
2. Response cost
3. Restitutional overcorrection
4. Punishment II

When Rochelle has an on-the-road lesson as part of her driver education class, she fails to stop at a school crossing zone, as is required by law. Her instructor has her drive around the block several times and stop each time at the crossing zone. He also insists that, once she has stopped, she must wait at least eight seconds before proceeding. The instructor’s strategy illustrates the use of _______ as a way of bringing about behavior change.
1. An intermittent reinforcement schedule
2. Positive-practice overcorrection
3. Response cost
4. Restitution

When Judy becomes verbally aggressive toward her peers, she is placed in a quiet and boring room for five minutes. The procedure being used here is most commonly known as:
1. time-out
2. systematic desensitization
3. response cost
4. in-house suspension

Nadia is an only child who lives on a ranch that is located many miles from the homes of other children. Although she enjoys being with her peers at school, she is often physically aggressive toward them. School personnel have made many small attempts to curb Nadia’s aggression (for example, they have scolded her, kept her in from recess, and put her in a time-out situation) but always without success. They are now thinking about taking more drastic measures. According to the textbook, which one of the following is most likely to be effective?
1. Putting Nadia in in-school suspension
2. Giving Nadia extra classwork in school subjects she knows well
3. Scolding Nadia in front of her peers about her inappropriate behavior
4. Suspending Nadia from school

In Mr. Marshall’s classroom, students who acquire 10 points in one day can have 20 minutes of free time at the end of the day. Mr. Marshall awards points to his students for good behavior and deducts points if they misbehave. The deduction of points for misbehavior is known as:
1. time-out
2. restitution
3. response cost
4. in-house suspension

Which one of the following is the major reason why assigning extra schoolwork is not an appropriate punishment for classroom misbehavior?
1. It gives students the message that classwork is an unpleasant task.
2. It decreases the likelihood that students will do their assignments appropriately.
3. It asks students to perform tasks without the support they need to complete those tasks successfully.
4. It is negative reinforcement rather than punishment.

Jimmy misbehaved in class and his teacher punished him by forcing him to skip recess. Withholding recess is generally an ineffective form of punishment because:
1. teachers do not consider recess a pleasant stimulus.
2. many arguments arise during recess making it a negative situation for most children.
3. recess provides a break from academic activities, which improves children’s concentration.
4. recess is too short of a time interval.

Three of the following statements reflect contemporary perspectives of instrumental conditioning and reinforcement. Which one does not?
1. Punishment has a more pronounced effect on behavior than reinforcement does.
2. Behavior can sometimes be better understood if we look at complex environmental conditions rather than at simple, specific stimuli.
3. Instrumental conditioning can more adequately be explained when we talk about mental processes as well as observable events.
4. Any single consequence may be more or less reinforcing depending on a learner’s particular motives at the time.

A mother has been paying her daughter Melissa one dollar an hour to shovel snow off the driveway. At the end of January, the mother raises the rate to two dollars an hour. Based on research related to contrast effects, we can predict that Melissa will probably:
1. Shovel half as much snow as she would have otherwise, and then she’ll quit.
2. Shovel the same amount of snow as she would have at a dollar-an-hour rate.
3. Shovel less snow than if the pay for shoveling snow had always been two dollars an hour.
4. Shovel more snow than if the pay for shoveling snow had always been two dollars an hour.

Essay Questions

Behaviorist theories tend to share a number of common underlying assumptions. In five short paragraphs, describe five of these assumptions.

On several occasions, Edward is yelled at by his soccer coach. Before long, Edward begins to shake whenever he drives to soccer practice.
1. Explain this situation in terms of classical conditioning, identifying the UCS, UCR, CS, and CR.
2. Edward soon shows signs of fearing other men in addition to his soccer coach, even though they have never yelled at him. Identify and describe the classical conditioning process that accounts for Edward’s fear of men.
3. Explain how you might eliminate Edward’s fear of men through a process of counterconditioning.

Last week Gretel was accidentally hurt in her physical education class when a much larger student ran into her and knocked her to the floor. Gretel is now afraid to go to physical education. Explain this situation in terms of classical conditioning, identifying the UCS, UCR, CS, and CR.

Shelby rarely interacts with her peers. She is obviously quite lonely but apparently has no confidence in her ability to make friends. Using a behaviorist perspective, describe how you might help Shelby develop social skills through shaping. In your discussion, be sure to include:
1. The specific behavior(s) you would shape
2. A specific reinforcer you might use, and why you make the choice you do
3. The sequence of steps you might take as you shape the desired behavior

Explain the difference between continuous reinforcement and intermittent reinforcement. When is each most useful?

You are giving tennis lessons to a beginning tennis player. Describe how you would teach the proper tennis swing. Specify:
1. A reasonable end result toward which you would work
2. A reinforcer you might use
3. When you would use continuous reinforcement
4. When you would use intermittent reinforcement

Distinguish among positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, Punishment I, and Punishment II. Give an example of each.

Classify each of the following situations as involving either classical conditioning or operant conditioning. In each case, defend your answer by analyzing the situation within the context of the learning paradigm you have chosen.

1. A father reminds his son James to be quiet at the dinner table. James stops talking, and his father smiles at him.
2. Ralph’s friend offers him an illegal drug. Ralph takes the drug and finds that it makes him feel euphoric. Ralph begins to buy the drug himself and takes it more and more frequently.
3. Linda is a bright, academically capable girl. Once, when she was sick, she failed an important test. Now she is very anxious whenever she takes a test.

In each of the following situations, a person is learning through either reinforcement or punishment. Classify each situation as involving one of these four consequences: positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, Punishment I, or Punishment II. Then explain why you chose the answer you did.
1. Because Danielle fails her math class, she is taken off the school dance squad.
2. Joe always does his homework assignments as soon as he gets them so he won’t have to worry about them anymore.
3. Lisa and Fran are giggling together in the back of the classroom. Their teacher scowls at them. They are embarrassed and shut up.
4. A teacher finds that by yelling at her students when they get too rowdy, they will settle down and be quiet for a while. (Focus on what is happening to the teacher.)

Stacey dislikes physical education class because her classmates tease her about her lack of strength and coordination. One day Stacey unintentionally hits one of her classmates, and the teacher sends her to the principal’s office for the remainder of the class time. Stacey becomes increasingly aggressive in class and so spends more and more time in the principal’s office. Use one or more concepts and/or principles from behaviorism to explain why Stacey has become more (rather than less) aggressive.

Avoidance responses are extremely difficult to eliminate. Explain why this is so, and describe two different procedures that can effectively reduce or eliminate avoidance behavior.

CHAPTER 4

APPLICATIONS OF BEHAVIORIST PRINCIPLES

Multiple Choice Questions

F. Skinner has criticized traditional educational practices for:
1. Failing to teach students to work for delayed reinforcement
2. Using concrete reinforcers more often than social reinforcers
3. Using intrinsic reinforcers more often than concrete reinforcers
4. Relying heavily on artificial reinforcement for mastery of classroom topics

Three of the following common criticisms of using behaviorist approaches in the classroom are valid ones. Which one usually is not true about behaviorist approaches?
1. When a student who enjoys an activity is given extrinsic reinforcement for doing it, the student’s intrinsic interest in the activity may decrease.
2. If some misbehaviors are reduced through reinforcement or punishment, other misbehaviors will always spring up to replace them.
3. Reinforcing a student simply for doing a task, without regard for the quality of performance, can encourage the student to do it quickly rather than well.
4. When a student has cognitive deficits that interfere with performance, simply reinforcing desired behaviors will be insufficient to bring about important changes.

In Mr. Greene’s third-grade class, math problems are easy enough that students always solve them quickly and correctly. From the textbook’s perspective, is this a good situation? Why or why not?
1. Yes, this is the ideal situation for learning math: Although the students may not move as quickly through the school’s math curriculum as students in other classes do, they will learn that math is an easy and enjoyable activity.
2. Yes, this is a good situation provided that Greene also warns students that the math curriculum will be more difficult for them once they reach high school.
3. This might be a good situation if students are solving problems in small, cooperative groups. However, if they’re working on the problems individually, they need harder problems to help them discover whether they have a natural aptitude for math.
4. If students never have any trouble with math problems, they won’t know how to handle the occasional failure and frustration they’re likely to encounter when they tackle more challenging problems at higher grade levels.
Tracy enjoys reading mystery novels and reads at least two a week. Her mother wants to encourage Tracy’s reading and so begins to pay her daughter one dollar for each completed mystery novel. Considering research regarding the extrinsic reinforcement of intrinsically reinforcing activities, we would expect Tracy eventually to:
1. Double her rate of reading mystery novels
2. Triple her rate of reading mystery novels
3. Lower her rate of reading mystery novels
4. Stop reading mystery novels altogether

Matthew knows his teacher will give him credit for each assignment he completes on time, without regard for the accuracy of what he does. As a result, Matthew often completes his work quickly, sloppily, and sometimes incorrectly. This situation illustrates which one of the following concerns regarding the use of behaviorist techniques in the classroom?
1. Reinforcement is a form of bribery.
2. Reinforcement of some behaviors may impede optimal learning.
3. Even very mild punishment adversely affects his self-esteem.
4. Applied behavior analysis ignores the cognitive factors that affect learning.

Teachers and other practitioners must be very careful in their use of punishment as a means of changing behavior. Three of the following are potential disadvantages in using punishment. Which statement about punishment is false?
1. Punished behaviors typically decrease slowly, if at all.
2. Punishment can in some instances lead to increased aggression.
3. Harsh psychological punishment can adversely affect emotional well-being.
4. Punishment in the classroom can make students fearful of school and/or their teacher.

and Mrs. Mercado don’t allow their daughter Maggie to chew gum at home and have punished her severely on the few occasions they have found her with gum in her mouth. Now Maggie rarely chews gum at home but chews it almost constantly at school, where she is not punished for doing so. Maggie’s different behaviors at home and at school illustrate an effect of punishment known as:
1. emotional arousal
2. reversal
3. behavioral contrast
4. restitution

Berk gives extra credit to each of his students who pick up 5 pieces of trash in the classroom before the bell rings at the end of the day. Despite the fact that most of the students pick up 5 pieces of trash before the end of the day, some students never participate in the cleanup. Which of the following statements explains why some students do not participate in the cleanup at the end of the day.
1. The classroom context is a context in which only some children are reinforced.
2. One reinforcer does not reinforce behavior for every learner.
3. Some students will never produce socially desirable behaviors.
4. When a group of students are reinforced together, the reinforced behavior is acquired more slowly than if the students are reinforced individually.

If you were to apply the concept of terminal behavior in teaching a lesson, which one of these things would you do?
1. Identify the things students should be able to do at the end of the lesson.
2. Identify the sequence in which you should teach various parts of the lesson.
3. Reward students who successfully complete the lesson.
4. Make sure all students have mastered the prerequisite skills on which the lesson depends.

Delahanty has several students who are chronic misbehavers. She meets individually with each student, and together the teacher and student agree to a plan for improving the student’s behavior and a suitable reinforcement for appropriate behavior change. Ms. Delahanty is using:
1. a contingency contract
2. Keller’s personalized system of instruction
3. a token economy
4. a group contingency

An essential element of a contingency contract in the classroom is that:
1. Behaviors are reinforced at least once a day.
2. Every student receives the same reinforcer.
3. Both teacher and student agree upon the desired behavior and its consequence.
4. Every student has a contract concerning the same behavior.

Hernandez is concerned about Brian, a student in her high school chemistry class who rarely interacts with other students. Ms. Hernandez decides to smile at Brian on those occasions when she happens to notice him talking with another student. Yet after three weeks she sees little change in his behavior. Based on this information, which one of the following is definitely wrong with Ms. Hernandez’s approach?
1. Brian has little to gain by changing his behavior.
2. Brian is receiving intermittent rather than continuous reinforcement.
3. Social interaction is not an intrinsically reinforcing activity.
4. A smile is not an effective reinforcer.

In Marcia’s first tennis lesson, her instructor Keith is trying to teach her the correct way to swing a tennis racket. Keith praises Marcia every time she hits the tennis ball over the net and into the “in bounds” area of the opponent’s side of the court using the correct body position. Marcia shows little improvement during the one-hour lesson. From a behaviorist perspective, what mistake is Keith probably making in teaching Marcia to play tennis?
1. He fails to realize that Marcia has little to gain by changing her behavior.
2. He is using intermittent rather than continuous reinforcement.
3. He should shape the behavior rather than expect immediate mastery.
4. Praise is rarely an effective reinforcer.

Healthier eating habits make people feel better and give them more energy over the long run. Yet many people do not improve their eating habits, especially if healthful foods are difficult and time-consuming to prepare. Three of the following are possible explanations for the lack of improvement (i.e., behavior change) in people’s eating habits. Judging from what you have learned about instrumental conditioning, choose the alternative that is not a likely explanation.
1. Extrinsic reinforcers are usually more effective than intrinsic reinforcers.
2. Eating junk food also has its reinforcers.
3. From a cost-benefit perspective, change is not worthwhile.
4. Reinforcement (in the form of feeling healthier) is delayed.

Which one of the following examples best illustrates the concept of baseline as behaviorists use the term?
1. After Louisa notices the attention she gets from boys on days she wears tight clothes, she often wears tight sweaters
2. Justin talks in class all the time, even though his teacher and classmates do nothing to encourage him.
3. Dimitri is afraid of the school swimming pool after he almost drowns in it during a swimming lesson.
4. Marsha starts copying her best friend’s homework assignments regularly after she finds out that she gets better grades if she does so.
If you wanted to encourage kindergartners to delay gratification, research indicates that an effective strategy would be to:
1. Tell them that how well they behave at the end of the day is really what counts
2. Ask them to focus on how good it feels to do something nice for a classmate
3. Talk about how their learning efforts today will pay off in the years to come
4. Occasionally remind them that they will get a bigger reward if they wait for an hour or two

Sean is a high school student who is angry much of the time. He often vents his anger by swearing at his teacher. One day his teacher decides to extinguish Sean’s swearing by ignoring him whenever he swears. Yet over the next few weeks, Sean continues to swear as frequently as he always has. Three of the following are possible explanations as to why, from a behaviorist perspective, the teacher’s “extinction” strategy is not working. Which alternative is the least likely explanation?
1. Other students are reinforcing Sean’s swearing.
2. Sean’s swearing has previously been reinforced on an intermittent basis.
3. Swearing allows Sean to release pent-up anger, so he is being negatively reinforced.
4. Sean is being reinforced for swearing by means of the Premack Principle.

Eight-year-old Amy always seems to be in “overdrive”—she has trouble sitting still for any length of time. Her teacher occasionally gives her short breaks in which she can get up and move around a bit as a way of releasing pent-up energy. Such breaks occur unpredictably, without regard for whether Amy is behaving appropriately or inappropriately at the time. Research indicates that such noncontingent reinforcement:
1. May improve Amy’s behavior somewhat, but she will likely not replace the inappropriate behaviors with appropriate behaviors.
2. Is likely to make Amy’s behavior worse
3. Will probably lead to behavioral contrast
4. Will confuse Amy and significantly increase her anxiety about classroom tasks

Which one of the following statements best characterizes how reinforcement of incompatible behavior can help reduce people’s inappropriate behaviors?
1. When we reinforce different people for different behaviors, they begin to discover which behaviors are appropriate and which are not.
2. Negative reinforcement of an incompatible behavior can ultimately reduce the frequency of that behavior.
3. An undesirable behavior will decrease when a person is reinforced for behaving in an opposite manner.
4. We can reduce serious behavior problems by allowing people to engage in less serious misbehaviors.

Which one of the following is an example of reinforcing an incompatible behavior as a way of eliminating an undesirable behavior?
1. Samantha is very shy and socially withdrawn. Her teacher reinforces her with a smile whenever she interacts with her classmates.
2. Johnny’s wisecracks have become so annoying that his teacher keeps him in from recess whenever he speaks inappropriately.
3. Mary has learned to reinforce herself whenever she gets all her spelling words correct.
4. Jerry must stay after school on days when he arrives late.

Loretta has been painting graffiti on the school walls after school hours. The school principal and the school counselor discuss the problem. The counselor thinks they should try to eliminate the graffiti-painting by asking her to chair a clean-up-the-school committee, then giving her school-wide recognition for her efforts. The counselor is suggesting:
1. extinction
2. noncontingent reinforcement
3. the reinforcement of an incompatible behavior
4. punishment II

Research indicates that when appropriate precautions are taken, the most effective method of reducing inappropriate behavior typically is:
1. extinction
2. punishment
3. reinforcement of incompatible behaviors
4. an intermittent schedule of reinforcement

Smythe keeps Eric after school whenever he swears in class. Even though Eric has been kept after school each day for the past three weeks, his swearing has increased rather than decreased. Given what we know about the effects of punishment on behavior, Ms. Smythe should probably conclude that:
1. Her punishment is only temporarily suppressing Eric’s swearing.
2. The punishment is too severe.
3. Eric’s swearing will decrease eventually.
4. Staying after school is not a punishment for Eric.

Three of the following are recommended practices when using punishment to reduce an inappropriate behavior. Which one is not recommended?
1. Punish the behavior each time it occurs.
2. Describe the inappropriate behavior to the would-be offender in concrete terms.
3. Change the environment to lessen the chances that the misbehavior will occur.
4. Punish frequently to get the point across.

Three of the following are recommended practices when using punishment to reduce an inappropriate behavior. Which one is not recommended?
1. Threaten punishment several times before administering it.
2. Explain why the behavior is unacceptable.
3. Teach the appropriate behavior for the situation.
4. Whenever possible, punish the behavior as soon as it occurs.

One of the following strategies, in addition to suppressing the punished behavior, is likely to suppress similar misbehaviors as well. Furthermore, it is likely to be effective even when punishment does not occur immediately. Which strategy best fits this description?
1. Annette is told that she is a “bad girl” because she accidentally broke a window.
2. Beryl is placed in in-school suspension when she is verbally abusive towards her classmates.
3. Carmella is sent to her room whenever she talks back to her mother.
4. Danielle’s mother scolds her for hitting others and explains that hitting can cause pain and injury.

Three of the following are almost always found in applied behavior analysis (ABA). Which one is not necessarily characteristic of ABA?
1. Altering the consequences of behavior
2. Measuring behavior before treatment begins
3. Exploring underlying causes of behavior
4. Measuring behavior during treatment

Vanessa frequently complains of getting terrible headaches and so ends up at the nurse’s office several times a week. Yet two different physicians have been unable to find a cause for Vanessa’s headaches, and Vanessa’s parents report that their daughter rarely has headaches at home. Vanessa is falling further and further behind in her schoolwork, so Vanessa’s teacher and parents meet with the nurse and school psychologist to brainstorm possible solutions to Vanessa’s problem. The school psychologist suggests that the teacher keep track of the occasions when Vanessa complains about a headache. Two weeks later, the teacher reports that all of Vanessa’s complaints occur just before a test or difficult assignment. Suddenly the teacher and parents begin to suspect that perhaps Vanessa complains of headaches as a way of getting out of having to do difficult assignments. Here we see the initial steps in a process known as:
1. The use of incompatible behaviors
2. Behavioral momentum
3. Functional analysis
4. Extinction of inappropriate behavior

Three of the following are typical components of positive behavior support in classroom settings. Which one is not typical?
1. Providing opportunities for a student to make choices
2. Using in-school suspension to punish dangerous behaviors
3. Teaching appropriate behaviors that can substitute for inappropriate ones
4. Changing the classroom environment to make inappropriate behaviors less likely

In applied behavior analysis, it is often important to promote, quite explicitly, the generalization of newly acquired behavior to a variety of contexts. Three of the following are recommended strategies for promoting such generalization. Which one of the following, although possibly beneficial for other reasons, will not necessarily promote generalization?
1. Teach the desired behavior in a variety of contexts to begin with.
2. Reinforce desired responses on a variable interval schedule.
3. Reinforce generalization when it occurs spontaneously.
4. Teach various forms of the desired behavior.

Richards gives his class fifteen minutes of free time whenever at least 95% of the class gets a passing grade on a test. Mr. Richards is using:
1. a group contingency
2. time-sampling
3. a token economy
4. a contingency contract

In Mr. Medeiros’s classroom, students are given play money each time they turn in an assignment; they receive additional amounts of money if the assignment is turned in on time and if it is done correctly. At the end of each week, students can use their “money” to purchase special privileges (free time, field trips, etc.). Mr. Medeiros’ approach to teaching can best be characterized as:
1. programmed instruction
2. a group contingency
3. a token economy
4. a contingency contract

Which one of the following alternatives best describes schoolwide positive behavior support?
1. Using only reinforcement—never punishment—to improve students’ classroom behavior
2. Creating conditions that enable students to meet their needs through appropriate rather than inappropriate behaviors
3. Teaching all students to monitor their own classroom behavior using a checklist taped to the tops of their desks
4. Meeting regularly with students in one-on-one discussions of chronic behavior problems, with the goal of bringing about more productive behavior

Practitioners who use applied behavior analysis to bring about behavior change in a student or client do not always rely solely on behaviorist principles; in many cases, they also incorporate cognitive elements into the strategies they employ. As examples of such cognitive behavior modification, they may use three of the following strategies. Which strategy is not likely to be part of cognitive behavior modification?
1. They may give verbal guidance to help the learner execute desired behaviors effectively.
2. They may model desired behaviors while the learner observes them doing so.
3. They may ask the learner to think about various ways of solving a social problem and then identify the most effective response.
4. They may have the learner read case studies about how other people have responded in similar problem situations.
From the standpoint of criteria described in the textbook, which one of the following objectives/goals should be most useful?
1. “Students will complete the first ten chapters of their textbook by the end of the semester.”
2. “Students will write poetry using meter and rhyme.”
3. “The teacher will demonstrate the correct way to use a Bunsen burner.”
4. “Students will study effective debating strategies.”

“The student will correctly point to the location of all fifty states.” This statement is missing one of the three recommended components of behavioral objectives. Which component is missing?
1. The method of instruction
2. An observable and measurable behavior
3. The criterion for judging acceptable performance
4. The conditions under which the behavior should be exhibited

Which one of the following instructional objectives most clearly focuses on students’ higher-level thinking skills?
1. “Students will describe the laws of momentum and inertia.”
2. “Students will use the laws of momentum and inertia to explain how objects move.”
3. “Students will take accurate notes during a lecture on momentum and inertia.”
4. “Students will learn formulas that involve momentum and inertia.”

Using behavioral objectives to describe classroom goals sometimes results in a lengthy list of seemingly trivial behaviors. In such situations, which one of the following is, according to the textbook, an acceptable alternative?
1. Constructing a small list of abstract objectives, giving examples of behaviors that reflect each one.
2. Foregoing instructional objectives when a teacher wants to focus on higher-level skills.
3. Constructing a mixture of behavioral and nonbehavioral objectives.
4. Emphasizing higher-level rather than lower-level skills.

The use of instructional objectives in instruction has several advantages. Which of the following is not a benefit that objectives provide?
1. They help a teacher choose appropriate instructional methods and homework assignments.
2. They facilitate student achievement even in areas not covered by the objectives.
3. They aid teachers in effectively communicate and coordinating what they are aiming to accomplish.
4. They facilitate the evaluation of student achievement.

An instructional objective that requires students to recite a definition exactly as it has been presented is at the ________ level in Bloom’s taxonomy.
1. synthesis
2. knowledge
3. comprehension
4. analysis

An instructional objective that requires students to rephrase a definition in their own words is at the ________ level in Bloom’s taxonomy.
1. application
2. knowledge
3. comprehension
4. analysis

An instructional objective that requires students to identify the different parts of speech in a sentence is at the ________ level in Bloom’s taxonomy.
1. analysis
2. synthesis
3. knowledge
4. comprehension

Which one of the following is the best illustration of synthesis within Bloom’s taxonomy?
1. Angela discovers fallacies in her teacher’s argument regarding the value of an agricultural economy in Africa.
2. Connie dissects an earthworm in order to examine its digestive system.
3. Edgar uses a principle that he learned in physics to develop a new tool to lift a heavy object.
4. Georgette writes a justification for corporal punishment using information from her sociology and psychology classes.

The major advantage of using Bloom’s taxonomy in developing objectives is that the taxonomy:
1. Helps in the formulation of criteria for judging acceptable performance
2. Encourages educators to address higher-level skills as well as factual knowledge
3. Identifies an indisputable order in which various skills should be taught
4. Specifies the most appropriate instructional method for every topic in the curriculum

A variety of discipline-specific professional organizations have developed context area standards (e.g., Common Core State Standards and Next Generation Science Standards) that educators might apply in identifying instructional objectives for a classroom or school district. Three of the following are accurate statements about these standards. Which one is not necessarily true?
1. They represent the joint efforts of many experts in a particular subject area.
2. Many of them can be found on the websites of the organizations that have developed them.
3. Research has clearly and convincingly shown them to be appropriate for the cognitive capabilities of students at different ages.
4. They tend to omit important objectives outside of a particular discipline—for instance, good study habits or effective interpersonal skills.

Three of the following are disadvantages of taxonomies and standards described in the textbook. Which of the following is not a disadvantage?
1. They often do not incorporate developmental research, and therefore are not reliably sensitive to the skills of different age groups.
2. They can miss goals that lie outside of a specific content area.
3. They are often lengthy lists that are not realistic goals for a single school.
4. They do not take into account students’ different abilities.

Longman is using programmed instruction in teaching her geography class. Which one of the following are students least likely to encounter in their instruction?
1. One-on-one interactions with their teacher
2. A high probability of success when they respond
3. Immediate feedback about the accuracy of their responses
4. A series of frames, each of which presents a small amount of new information

In programmed instruction, a branching program is different from a linear program in that a branching program:
1. Allows students to make choices about the topics they study
2. Takes smaller steps in teaching new material
3. Provides remedial work for students who need it
4. Is more likely to address important instructional objectives

Computer-assisted instruction (CAI) has several advantages over noncomputer-based programmed instruction (PI). Which one of the following is not an advantage of CAI over PI?
1. CAI provides immediate reinforcement, whereas PI does not.
2. CAI allows the use of videos and other moving graphics.
3. CAI allows for the collection of data regarding the progress of each student.
4. CAI is often found to be more effective than traditional instruction; PI is typically no more effective than traditional methods.

Judging from the brief descriptions below, which of these four teachers is most likely to be using a mastery learning approach?
1. Andrews lectures each week on different American novels. Students must attend at least 80% of these lectures.
2. Bennett begins each class by asking students what they would most like to study that day.
3. Carlton has divided his physics course into 15 discrete units that students study individually at their own rate.
4. Dominguez teaches children the basics of mathematics by using such concrete objects as blocks and sticks.

Judging from the brief descriptions below, which one of these four teachers is most likely to be using a mastery learning approach?
1. Alfonso gives examinations in which different students are asked different questions, depending on individual student needs and interests.
2. Bryant assigns term papers and oral reports rather than in-class examinations.
3. Carroll uses the highest four of a student’s six exam scores to determine course grades.
4. Dickson insists that each student in his sociology class pass the first unit exam at the 85% level before beginning work on the second unit.

Research indicates that mastery learning approaches are superior to traditional instruction in several ways. Which one of the following conclusions should not be drawn on the basis of research on mastery learning?
1. Academic achievement is higher in classrooms that emphasize mastery learning.
2. High-ability students are the primary beneficiaries of mastery learning approaches.
3. Students remember material for a longer period of time when taught with a mastery learning approach rather than with traditional instructional methods.
4. Some forms of mastery learning (e.g., Keller’s PSI) promote regular study habits rather than procrastination and cramming.

A mastery learning approach would probably be most suitable for teaching:
1. introductory Russian
2. a philosophy seminar
3. advanced techniques of photography
4. controversial issues in history

Sloan wanted to use behaviorist approaches in her classroom. She decided to test the students many times throughout her course. Which assessment practice is she employing?
1. Backward design
2. Formative assessment
3. Summative assessment
4. High stakes tests

Which of the following statement is not true of high stakes testing?
1. The tests are often not reflective of the instructional goals.
2. The results often determine students’ promotion or graduation.
3. They are most often summative assessments.
4. They can only be implemented by trained behaviorists.

For which of the following students would behaviorist approaches to instruction be least helpful?
1. Ann has a learning disability.
2. Bobby is very anxious about his academic work.
3. Carl would rather socialize with his friends than do his homework.
4. Dana has always been one of the top students in her class.

Essay Questions

Over the years people have voiced many concerns about the use of behaviorist techniques in the classroom. Some of these concerns are legitimate, but others are not. What might you say in rebuttal when someone makes each of the following complaints?
“Why are you bribing students to learn their math facts?”
“Punishing children for inappropriate behavior will make them feel badly about themselves.”
“When you reward a student for good behavior, you teach other students to misbehave so that they, too, can earn rewards.”

Greg has terrible study habits: whenever he is given an assignment to be done either in class or at home, he doesn’t begin the assignment until he has been repeatedly nagged by either his teacher or his parents. Furthermore, Greg seems unable to complete assignments without constant prodding to stay on task. Explain how you might use instrumental conditioning to help Greg develop better study habits. Be concrete and specific in your explanation of what you would do, and be sure to include each of the following in your description:
The baseline
The terminal behavior
A secondary reinforcer you might use
Shaping
Some means of preventing extinction

The director of the local boys’ club is concerned about the hostility exhibited by Jeremy, a 14-year-old boy who comes to the club frequently with his friends. Jeremy uses obscene language at the club, and he sometimes displays physical aggression toward the club facilities (he kicks furniture, punches the walls, and so on). Use an instrumental conditioning framework to address the following questions.
The director first decides to eliminate Jeremy’s hostile behaviors by ignoring them. In behaviorist terminology, what is the director trying to do?
This ignoring strategy does not seem to lead to any reduction in Jeremy’s hostility. Using an instrumental conditioning framework, give at least two possible explanations for the failure of the director’s approach.
The director then begins to praise Jeremy on those rare occasions when he does behave appropriately. In behaviorist terminology, how is the director now trying to eliminate the hostility?
This second approach does not seem to work any better than the first one did. Using an instrumental conditioning framework, give at least two possible explanations for the failure of this approach.

Ursula is always getting out of her seat at inappropriate times. As her teacher, you scold Ursula every time she does this, but her behavior seems to be getting worse rather than better.
From a behaviorist perspective, why is Ursula’s getting-out-of-seat behavior increasing rather than decreasing?
How might you decrease her behavior by reinforcing an incompatible behavior? Describe your procedure in detail, specifying the reinforcer and the behavior you will reinforce.

Many people object to the use of punishment in educational and/or therapeutic settings. But sometimes other means of discouraging inappropriate behaviors simply don’t work. In five short paragraphs, describe five specific strategies you would use to (a) maximize the effectiveness of punishment and/or (b) minimize the occurrence of adverse side effects. Base your strategies on the textbook’s discussion of punishment.

Develop an applied behavior analysis program to teach a 13-year-old girl to be more assertive. In your description, be sure to include and identify:
1. The target behavior
2. The method of measuring the target behavior
3. How an appropriate reinforcer will be selected
4. The treatment plan

Develop a token economy for a classroom of unruly third-grade children. In your description, be sure to include and identify:
1. At least two target behaviors
2. The method(s) of measuring the target behaviors
3. Token and back-up reinforcers, and how they are dispersed
4. The treatment plan

Describe the three components of traditional behavioral objectives. Write a behavioral objective that includes all three of these components, and identify each component within the objective you have written.

Describe at least three benefits of instructional objectives for teachers, students, or both. Also identify at least one downside of using instructional objectives to evaluate students’ achievement, especially when used in conjunction with high-stakes tests.

Describe three major characteristics of programmed instruction, and relate each one to a principle or concept from behaviorism.

Describe the mastery learning approach to instruction, identifying five major components that are typically included. Then give a concrete example of how you might use mastery learning to teach a specific topic, being sure to illustrate all five of the components you listed.

CHAPTER 5

SOCIAL COGNITIVE THEORY

Multiple Choice Questions

Social cognitive theory can best be characterized as being concerned with learning
communication skills
socially appropriate behaviors
through observations of others
subject matter in the social sciences (e.g., geography, psychology)

Goodsell is thinking about how she might help the students in her introductory French class learn to pronounce the word bonjour correctly. Which one of her thoughts below is most consistent with a social cognitive perspective of learning?
1. “If I explain the parts of the word—if I tell them that bon means “good” and jour means “day”—then they will have an easier time understanding why the word is pronounced the way it is.”
2. “Maybe I should show them how I form my mouth and lips as I pronounce the word and then encourage them to imitate me.”
3. “Maybe I should explain how certain letters and letter combinations are consistently pronounced differently in French than they are in English.”
4. “I need to be patient. Correct pronunciation will come in time for those students who are really motivated to speak French.”

Three of the following ideas are integral parts of social cognitive theory. Which one is not?
1. Learning can occur without a change in behavior.
2. People have control over their actions
3. Reinforcement can have an effect not only on the person being reinforced but on other individuals as well.
4. People’s behaviors are always the direct results of the specific environments in which they live.

Which one of the following examples best illustrates social cognitive theorists’ concept of personal agency in learning and behavior?
1. After once being bitten by a German shepherd, Seth becomes extremely anxious every time he sees a large dog.
2. Norah sits quietly in her history class, hoping that her teacher’s lecture will somehow “sink in” and “stick” in her brain.
3. In order to enhance his roller skating skills, Marvin enrolls in a roller skating class.
4. Linda gets increasingly frustrated when she can’t solve a complex math problem.

An early theory of imitation, one proposed by Miller and Dollard in 1941, suggested that individuals:
1. Form mental images of the behaviors they observe
2. Are reinforced for imitative behavior
3. Encode imitated behaviors verbally (i.e., by describing to themselves what they have observed)
4. Find imitation to be an intrinsically reinforcing activity

Which one of the following is an example of vicarious reinforcement?
1. Alice notices that her friend Ellen gets extra attention from the teacher when she acts helpless. Alice begins to act helpless as well.
2. Bill knows that he will get a higher grade if he turns in a research paper that is typed rather than handwritten, but he turns in a handwritten paper anyway.
3. Connie sees her friend Maria scolded for chewing gum in class. She quickly takes her own gum out of her mouth.
4. David sees how Justin gets good grades when he works hard on his mathematics homework, but David doesn’t want to work that hard.

Which one of the following is an example of vicarious punishment?
1. Johnny’s teacher smiles at him when he turns in his homework on time. He now always turns his homework in one time.
2. Betty notices that her sister gets to watch TV after she finished her chores. Betty begins to finish her chores as well.
3. Jane sees her friend Olivia scolded by the teacher for talking out of turn in class. Jane stops talking out of turn in class.
4. Lauren notices Emily get in trouble by the teacher for not cleaning her desk, but Lauren doesn’t want to clean out her desk.

A problem with trying to explain modeling solely from a strictly behaviorist perspective is that:
1. Events that are reinforcing for some people are not reinforcing for others.
2. People sometimes don’t imitate a behavior until many days after observing it.
3. Vicariously punished behaviors usually increase, rather than decrease, in frequency.
4. Not all behaviors are imitated.

Which one of the following instances of learning can be explained more easily by social cognitive theory than by behaviorist views of learning?
1. Playing the role of a German soldier in the school play, Andy says his lines using a German accent similar to one he’s heard in the movies a few times.
2. Brad discovers that to get his teacher’s approval, he must turn in his writing assignments without a single error in grammar, spelling, or punctuation.
3. Craig finds that he gets one “special” girl’s attention when he shows off on the playground.
4. Darren has stopped trying in school, because he seems to get low grades no matter what he does.

According to social cognitive theorists, reinforcement affects learning because it:
1. Encourages the learner to pay attention
2. Reduces the likelihood of punishment
3. Increases the strength of an S–R connection
4. Makes the learner feel good, thus reducing emotions that interferes with the learning process

According to social cognitive theorists, learning is unlikely to occur in one of the following situations. Which one?
1. Anastasia watches her father light a match, but she is not allowed to light one herself.
2. Bert watches professional basketball players shoot baskets, but he will not have a chance to shoot baskets himself until the following day.
3. Corinna’s teacher gives her a good grade on her paper because it was neatly written, but Corinna doesn’t realize that “neatness counts.”
4. Dustin expects to get a good grade for an assignment, but his teacher tells him she is subtracting points because he is turning it in two days late.

A guest speaker is coming to Mr. Fisk’s third-grade classroom, and he wants his students to treat the speaker with courtesy and respect. He decides to give his students 15 minutes of free time if they show appropriate behavior during the guest’s visit. From the perspective of social cognitive theory, Mr. Fisk’s reinforcement is likely to work only if his students:
1. Also experience intrinsic reinforcement for good behavior
2. Expect that this consequence will follow their good behavior
3. Have previously been directly reinforced for such behavior
4. Have previously been vicariously reinforced for such behavior

Which one of the following is the clearest example of a child working for an incentive?
1. Arnold’s mother gives him a dollar after he surprises her by mowing the lawn.
2. Betsy decides not to talk in class because her teacher ridiculed her earlier in the day when she gave an incorrect answer.
3. Cyril stays out late, even though he knows he will be punished when he gets home.
4. Doris is studying for a history test with the hope that she’ll get an A on it.

Which one of the following alternatives illustrates the impact of an efficacy expectation?
1. Anita knows that her teacher will help her if she has trouble with her math problems.
2. Brent is well aware that college admissions offices look at high school grades—but not middle school grades—when choosing students.
3. Although Christina would like to be on the varsity softball team, she doesn’t think she has sufficient talent to make the team, even with a lot of practice.
4. David’s parents must continually prod him to do his homework. Even so, he doesn’t work very hard on homework assignments because he knows they won’t count much toward his class grades.

Jefferson promises her students special treats if they turn in their homework assignments the next day. But the following day Ms. Jefferson forgets to bring the treats she promised. From the perspective of social cognitive theory, what has just happened to the students who turned in their homework assignments?
1. They have been punished for doing so.
2. They have been negatively reinforced for doing so.
3. They have been vicariously reinforced for doing so.
4. Their behavior has been extinguished.

Two boys are fighting on school grounds. Fighting is against school rules, and the boys know this. Even so, a teacher who sees them lets them continue to fight rather than punishing them for doing so. From the perspective of social cognitive theory, these boys will be:
1. Less likely to fight in the future
2. More likely to fight in the future
3. Likely to feel guilty when they stop fighting
4. Likely to imitate more appropriate social behaviors on future occasions

Which one of the following statements best illustrates the concept of reciprocal causation?
1. Individuals are more likely to imitate a behavior for which they have seen others reinforced.
2. Modeling can occur only when an individual is capable of performing an observed behavior.
3. People are unlikely to exhibit a behavior that will probably be punished.
4. The environment alters behavior, but behavior alters the environment as well.

In social cognitive theorists’ conceptualization of reciprocal causation, which one of the following is the best example of a person factor?
1. Alma expects to do well in science this year.
2. Bree got an A in science last year.
3. Curt’s friend Doug will be in his science class this year.
4. Doug has already read the first two chapters of his science textbook.

If we consider the concept of reciprocal causation, we must conclude that students’ behavior in the classroom is influenced:
1. Primarily by what teachers do in the classroom
2. Primarily by how students think about classroom material
3. Both by classroom events and the student’s expectations about the classroom
4. Largely by things that have happened to students in the past

Sharon knows that Kathy frequently completes her assignments long after they are due. She has noticed that their teacher willingly accepts Kathy’s late assignments because Kathy always has a creative excuse for turning them in late. Sharon begins to do the same thing—she turns in assignments past the due date and makes up excuses for why she is late. Sharon’s increase in excuse-making is due to:
1. Shaping and intrinsic reinforcement
2. An increase in self-reinforcement
3. A decrease in self-regulation
4. Modeling and vicarious reinforcement

Models can influence an observer’s behavior in a number of ways. Which one of the following behaviors is least likely to be the result of modeling?
1. Kevin is punished for hitting his brother, but several weeks later, after seeing a child on television hit a friend, he hits his brother again.
2. Luke scratches his mosquito bites, even though his mother continually asks him not to, because it makes them feel better.
3. Melvin is studying to be a dentist. His older brother is a dentist.
4. When Nathan sees how much pleasure his best friend gets by being in the school chess club, he joins a similar group: the school math club.

Which one of the following alternatives best describes the disinhibition effect that social cognitive theorists describe?
1. People may engage in a previously prohibited behavior if they see someone else being reinforced for that behavior.
2. People are less likely to engage in behaviors they have seen other people punished for.
3. People are less likely to engage in behaviors they have previously been punished for.
4. When people are punished for one behavior, they will tend to refrain from exhibiting that behavior; however, they will be more likely to engage in similar behaviors that are not

Trudy makes an obscene gesture in class, and the teacher punishes her severely. Other students in class observe both the gesture and the punishment. Based on social cognitive theory, what can we guess about what those other students have learned and how they are likely to behave in the future?
1. They don’t know how to make the gesture, but they know that the teacher will punish them severely for inappropriate behavior.
2. They know how to make the gesture, but they are likely to forget it within a few days.
3. They know how to make the gesture and are likely to make it in class in the future.
4. They know how to make the gesture, but they are unlikely to make it in class.

Which one of the following is the best example of a symbolic model?
1. An older brother or sister
2. The school principal
3. A detective on a television show
4. The police officer who lives next door

Tammy has trouble getting dates, so she begins to observe how other students attract boys. The four girls below have all had a date within the last week. Without knowing anything about Tammy, but using criteria proposed by social cognitive theorists, choose the girl whom Tammy is most likely to model.
1. Amanda has a steady boyfriend, but most of her classmates don’t like her.
2. Belinda has never had a date.
3. Clara enjoys playing traditionally “masculine” sports such as football and ice hockey with the boys.
4. Dorinda is popular and feminine.

Imagine that you are a teacher at a junior high school. Below are four behaviors you might exhibit in your classroom. Considering the textbook’s discussion of modeling, choose the behavior your students are least likely to imitate.
1. You show them how to estimate the price of an outfit they might want to buy.
2. You show them how to fill out their class schedule form for next year.
3. You show them how much you enjoy reading professional education journals.
4. You show them how to make a tasty fruit drink for a hot day.

Which one of the following best illustrates cognitive modeling?
1. A science teacher thinks aloud, “How can I determine what makes this pendulum swing fast or slowly? Hmm, I’ll change the amount of weight on the bottom, but I need to keep the length the same so I’ll know that any change in speed isn’t due to length.”
2. A dance teacher carefully describes every movement that students should make when doing a country line dance to the “Boot Scootin’ Boogie.”
3. A Spanish teacher has students practice rolling their Rs by asking them to repeat this tongue twister over and over: “Erre con erre cigarro, erre con erre barril. Rápido corren los carros del ferrocarril.”
4. After showing his students how to use a jigsaw correctly and safely, an industrial arts teacher has them practice using the saw by constructing pig-shaped cutting boards they can bring home as gifts for Mother’s Day.

Social cognitive theorists have studied the role of modeling on aggressive behavior. Which one of the following conclusions cannot be drawn from their research?
1. Children model aggression only when the model is the same sex as themselves.
2. Children can learn aggressive behavior by watching adult models as well as children.
3. Children who observe aggression in films and video games are more likely to be aggressive.
4. Children are less aggressive when they observe a nonaggressive model than when they observe no model at all.

Some researchers have studied the effects of modeling on children’s interpersonal behaviors. Which one of the following conclusions cannot be drawn from their research?
1. Children who watch generous models are more likely to be generous themselves.
2. Children learn effective interpersonal skills only from watching adults; what they see other children do has little or no effect on their own behavior.
3. Children with mild or moderate disabilities can benefit from watching other people behave appropriately.
4. Children can learn morally appropriate behaviors by watching television shows that demonstrate those behaviors.

Jenny hears her second grade teacher often tell the class that soda is bad for your health and that everyone should drink water. However, every afternoon Jenny sees her teacher drink a soda. Based information regarding behaviors that are learned through modeling, which beverage is Jenny most likely to drink:
1. Water, an authority figure’s words are more influential than their actions.
2. Neither, children only imitate other children.
3. Soda, people imitate other people’s actions more than their words.
4. Water, second graders always imitate to their teachers.

Bandura proposes that three of the following conditions are necessary for modeling to occur. Which one is not necessary?
1. Motivation to perform the behavior
2. Memory of the observed behavior
3. A relatively stress-free environment
4. Attention to the model

Modeling is often facilitated by memory codes. Three of the following are examples of such codes. Which one does not specifically illustrate a memory code?
1. While trying to remember how to do a front walk-over, Andrew visualizes how he saw his gymnastics coach do it a few minutes ago.
2. Beatrice successfully recalls how to make crepe batter simply by thinking, “eggs, milk, flour, oil.”
3. Charlene’s father shows her how to use a radial arm saw. Charlene listens closely in order to remember his verbal description of what he is doing.
4. David wears the same style of clothing his friends wear, even though he’s never been reinforced for doing so.

Three of the following alternatives depict situations in which a teacher is facilitating the retention component of modeling. Which one does not depict such a situation?
1. As he writes a capital J on the board, Mr. Anson tells his kindergartners, “To write a capital J, you make a fishhook with a line across the top.”
2. Byers suggests, “Let’s play some background music while I show you how to use the dipstick to measure your oil level.”
3. Caruso says, “There are several critical steps involved in throwing a pot on the potter’s wheel. Repeat these steps to yourself as you work so that you don’t forget them.”
4. As he demonstrates how to throw a baseball correctly, Mr. Duffy says, “Now repeat these words as you throw the ball: back, up, thrust, release.”

Only one of the following definitely illustrates high self-efficacy. Which one?
1. Amy knows she is a good singer.
2. Berta swims the fastest butterfly stroke on the swim team.
3. Carmen enjoys being with her friends.
4. Darlene recently got a score of 120 on an intelligence test.

In what way does the concept self-efficacy differ from such terms as self-concept and self-esteem?
1. Self-efficacy refers only to those behaviors we learn through modeling.
2. Self-efficacy results primarily from vicarious reinforcement and punishment.
3. Self-efficacy varies depending on the specific task to be performed.
4. Self-efficacy appears only after we begin to regulate our own behavior.

Listed below are four reasons why students might not want to take their schoolwork seriously or to try very hard to succeed at classroom tasks. Which one of these reasons is most clearly consistent with the concept of self-efficacy?
1. Anthony is more interested in goofing around with his friends.
2. Bernice gets so nervous in the classroom that she “can’t think straight.”
3. Carol doesn’t believe she has the ability to do the work successfully.
4. Danny thinks his teacher doesn’t like him.

Jim has a high sense of self-efficacy regarding his ability to work with his hands. Based on this information, we would predict three of the following from social cognitive theory. Which one would we not necessarily predict?
1. Jim will frequently choose activities that involve working with his hands.
2. Jim will be a bit careless when he works with his hands, so he will frequently make silly little mistakes.
3. Compared to Joe, who has low self-efficacy, Jim will do a better job at such hands-on tasks.
4. If Jim has difficulty at a task requiring his handiwork, he will tend to “try, try again” until he gets it right.

When George attends the first day of an Advanced Placement class in biology, he thinks to himself, “This is going to be a really hard class. I don’t know if I have what it takes to understand and remember all this stuff.” Which one of the following concepts from social cognitive theory do George’s misgivings best exemplify?
1. self-reaction
2. self-observation
3. self-efficacy for learning
4. self-efficacy for performance

Which one of the following teaching strategies is most likely to promote resilient self-efficacy?
1. Angelotti has her students pronounce Comment allez vous? over and over until they can do so correctly.
2. Benavidez makes sure that failure never occurs in his classroom; he limits his students’ assignments to tasks he knows they can do easily and effortlessly.
3. Coffin has students in a woodworking class use only hand tools while building a bookshelf.
4. Davis assigns a variety of challenging math problems, knowing that her students will successfully solve most, but probably not all, of them.

Should students ever be allowed to fail at classroom tasks? According to social cognitive theorists, the answer is:
1. Self-efficacy is highest when students fail at a task several times in a row before accomplishing it successfully.
2. Occasional failures interspersed among frequent successes teach students that perseverance pays off.
3. Failure gives students the message that school is not an enjoyable place to be.
4. Even a single failure can significantly deflate students’ self-efficacy.

John’s teacher gives him constructive criticism about how to improve the poem he has just written. According to the textbook’s discussion of social cognitive theory, what effect is such criticism likely to have on John’s self-efficacy for writing poetry, and why?
1. It will probably decrease his self-efficacy, because it communicates the message that he has done a poor job.
2. It will probably decrease his self-efficacy, because it suggests to him that the teacher’s standards are substantially higher than his own.
3. It will probably enhance his self-efficacy, because it communicates the message that his teacher cares about him as a human being.
4. It will probably enhance his self-efficacy, because it communicates the message that he has the ability to write a good poem.

Limpitlaw wants to increase his female students’ self-efficacy for mastering simple car maintenance procedures. He can best do this by:
1. Presenting a film that shows an experienced auto mechanic at work
2. Describing how easily he learned these things when he was their age
3. Having the students read a book with clear, step-by-step instructions for changing the oil and the air filter
4. Having the students watch other girls successfully change the oil and the air filter

Which one of the following statements best reflects the concept of collective self-efficacy?
1. Over time, learners develop a general sense of self-efficacy that influences their performance in a wide variety of content domains.
2. As learners get older, their self-confidence about performing certain tasks becomes fairly stable and so is less influenced by any single success or failure experience.
3. Learners may have greater confidence about accomplishing a task when they work with others rather than alone.
4. Some learners have greater self-confidence when they have technological resources (spreadsheet software, access to the Internet, etc.) to help them in their efforts.

Which one of the following best illustrates collective self-efficacy in teachers?
1. The teachers at West Middle School confer weekly about students who they believe are at risk for academic failure, and they are confident that, by working together, they can help these students be successful at school.
2. The teachers at South Elementary School have coordinated what they do at each grade level so that at any particular grade, students master the knowledge and skills they will need in the following grade.
3. The English teachers at East High School have agreed on how they will teach the required freshman English class. That way, students will have a similar classroom experience no matter which teacher they have for the course.
4. A third-grade teacher and a fourth-grade teacher at North Elementary School have combined their two classes into one large class. Sometimes they team-teach the entire group. At other times they divide the class into two smaller groups, one of which is ready for more advanced work than the other.

From the perspective of social cognitive theory, which one of the following children most clearly shows a key ingredient of self-regulation?
1. Anne does her chores so that she will get her weekly allowance.
2. Bob is proud of the fact that he always keeps a promise.
3. Carol knows she will be tested on the information being presented in class.
4. Donald refrains from punching a classmate because he thinks his teacher might be watching.

Three of the following are examples of self-regulation as social cognitive theorists describe it. Which one is not a good example of self-regulation?
1. A student reminds herself in a whisper that she should raise her hand before speaking in class.
2. A student thinks, “I paid better attention in class today. I’m going to reward myself by watching television when I get home from school.”
3. A student keeps track of the number of times he’s gone to the pencil sharpener in a single day.
4. A student tries hard to earn the reinforcer his teacher has told him he will get for good behavior.

Which one of the following best illustrates the self-reaction aspect of self-regulation?
1. Adele feels terrible when she inadvertently hurts a classmate’s feelings.
2. Bonnie knows how happy her parents will be if she brings home a good report card.
3. Clint doesn’t like striking out when it’s his turn at bat because his teammates will think he’s a bad baseball player.
4. Daryl checks his watch frequently as he takes a standardized test to be sure he can finish the test in the allotted time.

Maria is what social cognitive theorists would describe as a self-regulating individual when it comes to her moral behavior. Given this information, which one of the following descriptions best describes Maria’s moral behavior?
1. She works for social incentives; for example, she contributes to charity if she thinks that other people will like her better for doing so.
2. She behaves in morally appropriate ways only when she thinks other people are watching her.
3. She has an internal set of standards regarding right and wrong, but those standards seldom influence the way she actually behaves.
4. She has an internal set of standards regarding right and wrong behavior, and she feels guilty when she violates those standards.

Which of the following examples best illustrates a child using effortful control.
1. June knows she should not talk out of turn in class, but when she gets excited she cannot help herself.
2. Ben does not like the other kids in his class and often teases them during recces.
3. Allison likes to laugh when other kids get in trouble in class, however she knows this will hurt their feelings, therefore she holds her tongue and does not laugh.
4. Logan loves hanging out with friends after school and gets angry when he looses the privilege to do so.

Which one of the following strategies is most likely to promote self-regulation in students?
1. Adams knows that many students have trouble learning algebra. He spends the first few weeks of class having students engage in activities that will make algebraic concepts concrete and understandable.
2. When assigning a lengthy research project, Mr. Barnett advises his students to break the project down into a number of smaller tasks and then to reinforce themselves after they complete each one.
3. To build endurance, Mr. Carruthers asks his physical education students to run progressively longer distances each week.
4. D’Amato asks his students to look in a mirror and write a poem about what they see.

The textbook describes Meichenbaum’s five steps for teaching a child how to regulate his or her own behavior. Which one of the following most accurately summarizes these steps?
1. An adult models the use of self-instructions while performing a task, then encourages the child to use similar self-instructions, first aloud and then silently, while performing the same task.
2. An adult uses direct reinforcement and then vicarious reinforcement to teach the child a new behavior. Eventually, the adult asks the child to use self-reinforcement for the same behavior.
3. An adult teaches the child how to use self-monitoring to develop increasingly more complex behaviors related to a difficult task.
4. An adult first encourages the child to identify easy and achievable standards for performance. Over time, the adult asks the child to raise these standards and to work toward accomplishing them.

When people begin to record their own behavior, the frequency of that behavior:
1. Always goes up
2. Always goes down
3. May go either up or down
4. Typically remains unchanged unless self-reinforcement also occurs

Several students in Mr. Samber’s class have trouble keeping themselves on task during independent seatwork assignments. Mr. Samber gives each of these students a piece of paper on which they are to make a check mark every time they find themselves doing something other than their assignment during seatwork time. Mr. Samber is using which one of the following techniques for changing behavior?
1. A contingency contract
2. Reinforcement of an incompatible behavior
3. Punishment II
4. Self-monitoring

Mark often comes to school wearing sandals instead of sneakers on days he has physical education. He is getting angry with himself regarding his chronic forgetfulness about appropriate footwear. His teacher suggests that he treat himself to an hour of television only on days when he has remembered to wear sneakers. Mark’s teacher is suggesting that Mark use:
1. Self-monitoring
2. Self-reinforcement
3. Vicarious reinforcement
4. Intermittent reinforcement

John is motivated to bring up his grade in chemistry. He has decided to go to his chemistry class every day at lunch and after school. John’s decision is an example of:
1. Self imposed stimulus control
2. Modeling
3. Self efficacy
4. A contingency contract

These four teachers claim to be practicing principles from social cognitive theory. Based on the following information, which one is not?
1. Anderson makes sure students are paying attention when he demonstrates how to do long division problems.
2. Benson clearly outlines the rules in her class and makes sure all students are aware of hem before she reinforces or punishes any behavior.
3. Carlson tells his class that he wishes he had never started smoking cigarettes.
4. Donaldson shows her first graders how to spell her name by writing it in huge letters on the chalkboard.

Which one of the following is the best example of generalized self-efficacy?
1. Thanks to his good study habits, Evan is optimistic that he’ll do well in the wide variety of college courses he must take in order to graduate.
2. Rashida easily masters first-year algebra and can readily apply algebraic principles to solve new problems.
3. Shawna is such a skillful figure skater that she earns a place on the national Olympic Team.
4. Lance plays basketball every chance he gets, and when he’s not playing the game himself, he’s watching professional basketball on television.

Which of the following teachers most clearly illustrates teacher self efficacy?
1. Johnson loves to each and wakes up every day hoping that the children will learn from his lessons.
2. Thom became a teacher so she could help disadvantaged students.
3. Baker thinks that every one can be a good teacher with the proper training.
4. Sand is a confident teacher who believes that she can teach students.

Essay Questions

Define the concept of vicarious reinforcement and give a concrete example to illustrate this concept in action. Also, describe the effect that vicarious reinforcement has on a person’s behavior.

Using the perspective of social cognitive theory, describe the effects that the nonoccurrence of expected reinforcement and expected punishment have on later behavior.

Bandura proposes that four processes are necessary in order for someone to model another’s behavior. Describe each of them, and illustrate your discussion with a concrete example.

People model the behaviors of some people but not others. Describe three characteristics that social cognitive theorists believe are true of people whom others are likely to model.

You are teaching several other people how to do something—perhaps how to solve a math problem, write a research paper, or do a side dismount from the parallel bars—and you find that your students have low self-efficacy for doing the task.

Describe a specific task that you might eventually teach one or more other individuals.
Considering the factors affecting self-efficacy that the textbook describes, develop two strategies you might use to enhance the learners’ self-efficacy for performing the task. For each strategy, describe what you would do in specific, concrete terms.

Social cognitive theorists propose that people often become increasingly self-regulating over time.
1. Explain what social cognitive theorists mean by the term self-regulation, and give a concrete explanation to illustrate your explanation.
2. Identify an activity or domain in which you might help someone else become increasingly self-regulating. Then describe two specific strategies you might use to promote that person’s self-regulation. Your strategies should be based on concepts and/or principles that social cognitive theorists offer.

Imagine that you are a compulsive overeater. Describe two different strategies based on the concept of self-regulation through which you might cut down on eating. Be specific as to how you might implement each method.

The textbook presents numerous implications of social cognitive theory for classroom practice. Describe four of these implications, illustrating each one with a concrete example.

Describe three different ways in which you might apply social cognitive theory in your own profession (teaching, counseling, instructional design, etc.). Identify the specific concepts and/or principles you are applying, and be concrete and specific about how you would apply each one.

CHAPTER 6

INTRODUCTION TO COGNITIVISM

Multiple Choice Questions

The basis for verbal learning theory came from which of the following research discoveries?
1. Language based learning could not be described by the behaviorist perspective alone.
2. Behaviorists did not want to be associated with language learning research.
3. All humans can learn language at an early age.
4. Humans can proficiently learn more than one language.

Three of the following are assumptions that underlie contemporary cognitive theories of learning. Which one is not such an assumption?
1. Mental events can be studied indirectly by observing behavior.
2. Humans often learn by relating new information to what they already know.
3. Researchers can study mental events only by abandoning objectivity.
4. Humans sometimes learn differently than other species do.

Contemporary cognitive theory asserts that humans are actively involved in their own learning. This assertion is most closely aligned to which theory?
1. Cognitive developmental
2. Social cognitive
3. Cognitive behavioral
4. Cognitive neuroscience

Which one of the following statements best describes the history of contemporary cognitive theory?
1. It has been a major force guiding learning research ever since computers were used to understand cognition.
2. It has been the dominant perspective in learning research only in the past six or seven decades.
3. Its roots can be traced to the work of verbal learning theory, which in turn evolved from Jean Piaget’s research in Switzerland.
4. It gained prominence only when psychologists began to cast aside the need for objectivity in psychological research.

In a series of experiments, Tolman investigated the role of reinforcement in learning. Which one of the following conclusions emerged from his research?
1. Reinforcement is essential for learning, but not for performance.
2. Reinforcement is distracting, so interferes with learning.
3. Responses can be learned even when they are not reinforced.
4. Reinforcement is important only if the organism is unmotivated.

Fremont tells his French class, “La plume means ‘pen.’” Which one of the following students in his class is exhibiting Tolman’s notion of latent learning?
1. Alicia immediately repeats the sentence, “La plume means ‘pen.’”
2. Bethany also repeats the sentence immediately, but she mispronounces the French word plume as “plum.”
3. Caroline is reading a novel hidden between the pages of her French book and so isn’t paying attention.
4. Donna says nothing at the time, but she correctly recites the French word for “pen” the next day.

Which one of the following statements reflects Tolman’s notion of purposive behaviorism?
1. Organisms sometimes reinforce themselves (e.g., by feeling proud).
2. Organisms behave in order to attain particular goals.
3. Behavior can be altered by reinforcement, but not by punishment.
4. When organisms discover that a particular response is no longer reinforced as it has previously been, they increase the frequency of that response for a short time.

Tolman was interested in examining the role of expectations in behavior. Which one of the following statements most accurately describes the method he used to study expectations?
1. He never reinforced any given response in the same way twice.
2. He reinforced a response the same way for several trials, then abruptly changed the type or amount of reinforcement.
3. He asked subjects what they were expecting a particular response to accomplish.
4. He gave his subjects a lengthy survey that included two or three questions concerning their expectations about the experiment.

Which one of the following best illustrates Tolman’s notion of a cognitive map?
1. You study a map of Australia until you can reproduce it with considerable accuracy.
2. You study a map of Australia but reproduce it with many distortions in shape and location.
3. After walking around campus for a few days, you learn where buildings are in relation to one another.
4. The concepts table and chair are more closely associated in memory than the words bed and refrigerator.

Three of the following illustrate the Gestalt notion that “the whole is more than the sum of its parts.” Which one does not reflect this idea?
1. Abby notices that a row of flashing lights look like a single moving light.
2. Bobby gazes at the stars and notices how a cluster of seven stars forms the shape of a tennis racket.
3. Cubby is learning the concept brighter. He is shown a dim light and a bright light and told that the second light is brighter. When he later sees the same bright light and an even brighter one, he correctly identifies the new light as being brighter.
4. Debby learns that “2 plus 2 equals 4” and repeats this fact to herself over and over again until she knows it perfectly.

People are more likely to perceive this configuration of shapes:

∆ ∆ ∆ ∆

◊ ◊ ◊ ◊

$ $ $ $

• • •

as four rows rather than as four columns. Which one of the following Gestaltist concepts best accounts for this phenomenon?

Closure
Prägnanz
Proximity
Similarity

Julia sees a set of twelve circles arranged like this:

O O O O O O

Using Gestalt principles, we can predict that Julia will perceive them as:

2 groups of 6 circles each.
6 groups of 2 circles each.
3 groups of 4 circles each.
4 groups of 3 circles each.

You perceive a shape as a rectangle even though two of its lines are too short to connect at one corner. Which one of the following Gestaltist concepts best accounts for this phenomenon?
1. Closure
2. Prägnanz
3. Similarity
4. Proximity

Frank sees an egg-shaped ball that he later “remembers” as being perfectly round. Frank’s mistaken recollection is an example of the Gestalt principle of:
1. Proximity
2. Closure
3. Prägnanz
4. Restructuring

McDevitt’s class has learned how to calculate the area of a rectangle. Ms. McDevitt then asks Teresa how to calculate the area of a square. Which one of the following alternatives best describes the Gestalt perspective of how Teresa would solve this problem?
1. She would engage in trial and error behavior, attempting one solution after another, until she eventually solved the problem.
2. She would solve the problem on her own only after watching the teacher solve the problem.
3. She would think about the problem for a while and, once she realized that a square was a kind of rectangle, be able to solve the problem.
4. Through a process of shaping, with her teacher reinforcing her for appropriate responses, she would eventually solve the problem.

The theories of Edward Tolman and the Gestalt psychologists were similar with respect to one of the following alternatives. Which one?
1. An emphasis on how knowledge is organized
2. An emphasis on cognitive maps
3. Research with human subjects
4. The law of Prägnanz

Which one of the following is the best example of serial learning?
1. Learning how to fly a kite
2. Learning the months of the year in order
3. Learning French grammar
4. Learning the capitals of European countries

Which one of the following is the best example of paired associate learning?
1. Learning how to fly a kite
2. Learning the months of the year in order
3. Learning French grammar
4. Learning the capitals of European countries

Mark needs to learn the planets of the solar system listed in the order of their proximity to the sun: Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune. If we consider the serial learning curve, which planets will probably be the most difficult for Mark to learn?
1. The planets closest to the sun (e.g., Mercury, Venus)
2. The middle planets (e.g., Mars, Jupiter)
3. The planets farthest from the sun (e.g., Uranus, Neptune)
4. The planets at the two ends of the list (e.g., Mercury, Neptune)

Pike’s class is learning to spell twenty new words. They learn 5 words per day for four days (Monday through Thursday). On Friday the students are given a spelling test on all 20 words. When Mrs. Pike is grading the tests, she notices that most students remembered the words that we taught on Thursday, but not on Monday through Wednesday. Which verbal learning principle can explain Mrs. Pike’s spelling test results?
1. Primacy effect
2. Recency effect
3. Overlearning
4. Proactive inhibition

Sarah needs to learn how to spell 40 words for a spelling test tomorrow. Sarah wants to perform as well as she possibly can on the test. Based on findings from verbal learning research, which one of the following would be the best advice to give Sarah?
1. “Spell each word at least 5 times, saying the letters silently to yourself.”
2. “Spell each word at least 5 times, saying the letters out loud.”
3. “Spell the words until you know them all perfectly.”
4. “Spell the words until you know them all perfectly, and then continue to practice spelling them several more times.”

John and Jenny are both taking the same math test on Friday. John studies for 6 hours on Thursday. Jenny studies for 2 hours per day on Tuesday, Wednesday and Thursday. According to research consistent with the verbal learning theory, which student should perform better on the math exam and why?
1. Jenny, because she studied for more days overall.
2. Neither, they would perform the same because they both studied for the same amount of time overall.
3. John, because all of his studying was massed together.
4. Jenny, because her studying was distribute over time.

Harry and Sam are both taking French; Harry is also taking German, but Sam is not. Harry and Sam learn these French vocabulary words in their French class:

head – la tête

eye – l’œil

mouth – la bouche

The following day, Harry learns these German vocabulary words in his German class:

head – der Kopf

eye – das Auge

mouth – der Mund

A week later the two boys are given a French vocabulary quiz in which they are asked to give the French words for head, eye, and mouth. Other things being equal, findings from verbal learning research would lead us to predict that:

Due to retroactive inhibition, Harry will get a lower grade on the quiz than Sam.
Due to proactive inhibition, Harry will get a higher grade on the quiz than Sam.
Due to retroactive facilitation, Harry will get a lower grade on the quiz than Sam.
Due to proactive facilitation, Harry will get a higher grade on the quiz than Sam.
Jennifer was given a random list of 20 words to study. Jennifer was then asked to recall as many of the words as she could remember in a free recall task. Consistent with verbal learning research, which of the following orders is Jennifer most likely to recall the words in?
1. Random order
2. The same order the words were presented in
3. In categories organized by the words’ meanings
4. Alphabetical order

Based on findings from verbal learning research, which list of 3-letter syllables should be easiest to learn?
1. CAR, DOG, BUN
2. BUX, RIJ, NOP
3. TUN, FOT, AOR
4. XDP, MFC, RLJ

A number of learning principles emerged from early verbal learning research. Which one of the following statements contradicts what verbal learning theorists found?
1. People tend to organize unorganized information.
2. People are more likely to remember general ideas than word-for-word information.
3. Practicing for a long time all at once is more effective than practicing for short periods on different occasions.
4. People sometimes change information into a form they can learn and remember more easily.

Early behaviorists argued that because thinking cannot be observed, it cannot be studied objectively and scientifically. How would a cognitive psychologist be most likely to respond to this argument?
1. “Modern technology allows us to study thought processes very precisely.”
2. “By studying people’s responses to various stimuli, we can draw inferences about thought processes that may underlie those responses.”
3. “We study mental events, which aren’t the same thing as thinking.”
4. “We can determine what people are thinking simply by asking them to describe their thoughts. The things they say are observable behaviors that we can measure objectively.”

Contemporary information processing theories of learning can best be described as theories that:
1. Focus on how people solve problems
2. Propose that people learn in distinctly computer-like ways
3. Deal primarily with how people develop the ability to think abstractly
4. Explain how people interpret and remember the events they experience

Which one of the following scenarios best reflects the basic idea of individual constructivism?
1. A student tries to make sense of a poorly written and confusing magazine article.
2. A teacher assigns a laboratory activity using cumbersome equipment that students can only use successfully by working in pairs.
3. A student practices playing the F major scale on his violin until he can play it perfectly.
4. Four students in a study group divide the day’s reading assignment into four sections. Each student reads a section and then teaches the material to the other group members.

Over the course of history, science has continued to evolve as new data emerge and scientists offer new ideas to explain those data. This continuing process of change in scientific thinking over the years best reflects the idea of:
1. information processing theory
2. individual constructivism
3. social constructivism
4. Prägnanz

Which one of the following statements best describes contextual views of learning?
1. Information stored in long-term memory is highly interrelated, such that everything is either directly or indirectly connected with everything else.
2. Learners can tackle complex tasks more successfully when they have familiar concrete tools to assist them in their efforts.
3. Practice in applying principles of deductive and inductive reasoning leads to more logical thought processes in a variety of contexts.
4. People of all ages—but especially young children—learn most effectively when they can relate a new concept to their own experiences.

These four teachers claim to be practicing principles from cognitive psychology. Based on the following information, which one is not?
1. Anthony, a high school biology teacher, draws a hierarchy on the board showing how mammals, fish, birds, reptiles, and amphibians are all vertebrates, and how vertebrates and invertebrates are both animals.
2. Bottenberg, a fourth grade teacher, suggests that his students try to learn their spelling words by thinking about similarly spelled words that they already know.
3. Conrad, a junior high school soccer coach, asks his players to practice passing the ball to one another as they run down the field, then openly praises those players who are passing skillfully.
4. Danforth, a third grade teacher, introduces her class to the topic of multiplication by showing them how it relates to addition.

Essay Questions

Identify two contributions that each of the following made to contemporary cognitive learning theory:
1. Edward Tolman
2. Gestalt psychologists
3. Verbal learning theorists

Explain what Gestalt psychologists meant by the phrase, “The whole is more than the sum of its parts.” Give two examples—one related to perception and one related to learning—to illustrate your explanation.

Describe what is meant by serial learning and paired associate learning and give a real-life example of each.

Contemporary cognitive learning theories share a number of common underlying assumptions. Describe four of these assumptions.

Describe three general implications of cognitive learning theories for classroom practice. Illustrate each implication with a concrete example of what a teacher might do.

CHAPTER 7

BASIC COMPONENTS OF MEMORY

Multiple Choice Questions

Which one of the following is the best example of encoding in the process of learning state capitals?
Abe learns Austin, Texas by making sure he is relaxed before he studies it.
Bernice focuses her eyes on the page that says “St. Paul, Minnesota” and keeps them focused there for at least 10 seconds.
Corey learns Atlanta, Georgia by thinking, “The Atlantic Ocean is gorgeous.”
Darcy learns Sacramento, California by having a tape recorder play “Sacramento, California” over and over while she sleeps.

During a lecture on World War II, Mr. Cochran tells his class about some of the major leaders of the countries involved in the war. He then asks Kathy to identify the leader of Great Britain during World War II, and she correctly responds, “Winston Churchill.” At the time she answers the question, Kathy is exhibiting:
storage
retrieval
elaboration
proactive facilitation

Which one of the following is an accurate statement about the dual-store model of memory?
All information that reaches the sensory register also reaches short-term memory, but only a small percentage of this information is stored in long-term memory.
Information that must be remembered for a long time goes directly from the sensory register to long-term memory; less important information is stored in short-term memory.
All information that enters long-term memory must first pass through the sensory register and short-term memory.
The three components of memory are used to store different kinds of information: visual images are stored in the sensory register, most numerical information is stored in short-term memory, and verbal information is stored in long-term memory.

When psychologists refer to a dual-store model of memory, they are referring to a model in which:
A distinction is made between working and long-term memory
Functions rather than structures of memory are emphasized
Information must be processed more than once before it will be stored
A distinction is made between two different levels of processing

When memory theorists talk about control processes, they are talking about:
Observable behaviors (e.g., walking to a new location) that affect what information in the environment is encountered
How the environment structures people’s opportunities to learn new things
The methods that teachers use to facilitate a learner’s memory for information
Cognitive processes that affect storage and retrieval of information

Which one of the following best reflects the use of the sensory register component of memory?
You can remember a melody for several hours even though you don’t remember the lyrics.
You can remember something you heard for a second or two even though you weren’t initially paying attention to it.
You can remember the name of a person just long enough to introduce her to someone else.
You can remember the concept of reinforcement because you are able to relate it to your own experiences.

Which one of the following statements best characterizes the duration of the sensory register?
Information can last indefinitely in the sensory register if the visual or auditory image is occasionally retrieved.
Meaningless information fades quickly, but meaningful information may remain for hours.
Most visual information lasts less than a second, with auditory information lasting slightly longer.
Information remains for about ten seconds regardless of its nature.

Learning theorists often emphasize the importance of attention in the learning process? From the perspective of the dual-store model of memory, why is attention so important?
It gets information into the sensory register.
It moves information from working memory into long-term memory.
It moves information from the sensory register into long-term memory.
It moves information from the sensory register into working memory.

A classroom of talkative students immediately quiets down and pays attention when the teacher yells, “Listen to me!” quite loudly. The students’ sudden attentiveness to the teacher demonstrates the effect of _______ on attention.
stimulus intensity
personal relevance
proximity
working memory

Marnie attends very closely to the English teacher’s lecture because she knows she must pass her English course in order to graduate. Marnie’s attentiveness demonstrates the effect of _______ on attention.
stimulus intensity
personal significance
emotion
incongruity

When a stray dog wanders into a classroom, all of the students stop their seatwork and watch the teacher try to coax the dog from the room. The students’ attentiveness demonstrates the effect of _______ on attention.
novelty
proximity
size
personal significance

Based on the textbook’s discussion, you might best think of attention as being a process of:
Turning one’s sensory receptors in the direction of desired information
Making stronger responses to bright or loud stimuli
Focusing one’s cognitive processes on certain stimuli in the environment
Filtering out unwanted information, in much the same way that an oil filter removes unwanted particles

Which one of the following most clearly illustrates the Gestalt principle of figure-ground?
Aaron is watching the teacher’s face so intently that he doesn’t notice what she is writing on the chalkboard.
Bart has difficulty seeing the difference between the letters b and d because the two letters are so similar in appearance.
Caryn is lost in her thoughts.
Darlene has difficulty judging the size of objects more than six meters away from her.

Each of the women below is engaging in two activities simultaneously. Considering contemporary views of attention, identify the woman who should have the greatest difficulty doing both things at once.
Amelia is thinking about what to cook for dinner while she combs her hair.
Brenda is watching the evening news on television while she studies for an exam.
As Camille walks down the street, she calls a friend on her cell phone to express anger about his inconsiderate behavior earlier in the day.
As she jogs around the track at the health club, Donna is trying to decide where to go on her vacation next month.

Which one of the following best illustrates the “working” aspect of working memory?
Efficiently using a pair of scissors
Confusing two people’s names
Alphabetizing five names as you hold them in memory
Unconsciously adjusting your grip on a tennis racket in anticipation of executing a backhand swing

Which one of the following examples best illustrates involvement of a central executive in the human memory system?
Adam absentmindedly cracks his knuckles every minute or two.
Brigette works hard to keep her mind on her textbook as she reads.
As she sits in a science lecture, Claudia’s thoughts continually drift to other topics.
David is frightened the first time he hears the loud noises at a fireworks display.

Which of the following children best illustrate the use of effortful control.
John loves dogs and can read books about dogs for hours.
Kate does not like to read and when her mother asks her to read, she watches her favorite TV show instead.
Beth does not like to read, but knows it is important, so she solely attends to reading for twenty minutes a day.
Natalie loves to read about dogs, but when she is assigned reading about cats, she takes her dog for a walk instead of completing the reading assignment.

Considering current views regarding the capacity of working memory, which one of the following sets of information could be held entirely in working memory?
The names of 20 friends
The visual images of 20 friends
Two pages of narrative from a mystery novel
A list of five miscellaneous household objects

William is trying to remember his new nine-digit social security number, and he does so by thinking of it as three groups of three digits each. William is demonstrating:
The use of chunking
Storage in the sensory register
Retrieval from working memory
The use of maintenance rehearsal

Look at this word:

KITE

Without turning the page, try to imagine how the word would look if it were rotated 180º. To perform this task successfully, you would need to make considerable use of that part of your working memory known as the:

visuospatial sketchpad
reticular formation
phonological loop
sensory register

Which one of the following scenarios reflects the typical duration of working (short-term) memory?
Arnie’s family spends a summer at his grandmother’s house and is able to remember his grandmother’s telephone number for the two months he is there. However, he quickly forgets the number after he moves back home again.
Barney looks up the correct spelling of the word fossil and closes the dictionary. By the time he finds a piece of paper on which to write the word, he has forgotten how to spell it.
Carol remembers most of the information that she has been learning about World War II in class this week, but she remembers very little of what she learned about World War I two weeks ago.
At 9:00 a.m., Darrell makes a mental list of the five items he needs to purchase at the grocery store at the end of the day. At noon, he checks himself and realizes that he still remembers all five. At 3:00 p.m., however, he discovers that he has forgotten three of the five items.

Eunice has had trouble remembering the formula for calculating the area of a circle, so she is saying it to herself over and over again as her teacher passes out a geometry test. Eunice is demonstrating:
Storage in the sensory register
Retrieval from working memory
The use of maintenance rehearsal
The use of chunking

Which one of the following best illustrates the word length effect?
Linda finds that her attention is drawn more readily to long words (e.g., watermelon) than to short ones (e.g., pear).
Macy has a difficult time remembering how to spell hippopotamus and armadillo, even though she can spell other animal names (e.g., dog, bear) quite easily.
When words are four or more syllables long, the tendency to mix up the order of consonants (e.g., mispronouncing interpretation as “interpetration”) increases considerably.
Rick has trouble remembering this week’s shopping list—detergent, antifreeze, cinnamon, watermelon, margarine—even though he could easily remember a 6-item list (nuts, milk, pears, salt, ham, stamps) last week.

You know what a computer is, and you also know how to send an email message using a computer. The difference between these two kinds of knowledge can best be characterized as a difference between:
explicit vs. implicit memory
declarative vs. procedural knowledge
things learned through deep vs. shallow processing
things learned through the visuospatial sketchpad vs. through the phonological loop

John learned the capitals of all 50 US states when he was a child. As an adult, he can no longer recall or recognize any of the 50 state capitals. However, he relearned the capitals faster than Jenny who did not learn the state capitals as a child. John’s relearning suggests that the information regarding the state capitals remained in his ________________ from the time he first learned them as a child.
sensory register
working memory
long-term memory
sensory register and working memory

If you know how to wrap a present, you can probably describe the process to someone else. But if you know how to skip rope, you may have difficulty explaining what you do to someone else. The difference between these two kinds of knowledge can best be characterized as a difference between:
explicit vs. implicit memory
declarative vs. procedural knowledge
things learned through deep vs. shallow processing
things learned through the visuospatial sketchpad vs. through the phonological loop

Three of the following statements are accurate descriptions of long-term memory. Which one is not necessarily accurate?
Information can last for a lengthy period of time, although not necessarily forever.
Retrieval of information from long-term memory is sometimes difficult.
Much of the information stored there is stored in terms of general meanings.
The more information it contains, the less room it has for new material.

To prepare for his test on Tuesday morning, Harvey studied on Monday night. He remembered the information long enough to do well on the test on Tuesday but could not remember it for a surprise quiz a week later. Based on this information, how far in Harvey’s memory system did the information get?
It reached the sensory register.
It reached working memory.
It reached long-term memory.
It never got into the memory system at all.

Susan is introduced to Jerry. She immediately smiles and says, “Hello, Jerry.” A minute later, she wants to introduce Jerry to her friend Mary, but she cannot remember his name. Based on this information, how far in Susan’s memory system did Jerry’s name get?
It reached the sensory register.
It reached working memory.
It reached long-term memory.
It never got into the memory system at all.

Wagner stands in front of the class explaining the process of evolution. Ellen is sitting in the front row, but her mind is on the fight she had with her best friend just before class. Based on this information, how far in Ellen’s memory system did Mr. Wagner’s lecture get?
It reached the sensory register.
It reached working memory.
It reached long-term memory.
It never got into the memory system at all.

Several sources of evidence have been used to address the question of whether working memory and long-term memory are separate entities. Which one of the following is not a source of evidence that has been used for this purpose?
The serial learning curve
The behaviors of people who have sustained brain injuries
The form in which information is stored in different memory tasks
People’s descriptions of how they remember information

Which one of the following kinds of knowledge is least likely to be dependent on active, conscious processing to be learned? Base your choice on research findings presented in the textbook.
Knowing that Los Angeles is approximately 3,000 miles from New York.
Knowing how to start a fire using crumpled newspaper and small twigs.
Knowing that football, lighthouse, and airport are all compound words.
Knowing that the word cat appears in speech more often than

Which one of the following pairs illustrates two different levels of processing?
Deciding whether bear rhymes with chair; deciding whether bear rhymes with deer.
Deciding whether bear rhymes with chair; deciding whether actual rhymes with natural.
Deciding whether bear rhymes with chair; thinking about how a bear and a dog are similar.
Thinking about how a bear and a dog are similar; thinking about how a chair and a table are similar.

Peter and Paul are both listening to the same lecture. Peter is trying to learn the information being presented so that he can remember it later on. Paul is listening closely but not necessarily trying to remember it. From a levels-of-processing perspective, we would predict that:
Peter is engaging in incidental learning, so will probably remember more.
Paul is likely to process the information at a deeper level, so will probably remember more.
Both boys will remember the same amount if they process the information in the same way.
Both boys will remember the same amount if they are equally alert.

Which one of the following statements best describes an activation model of memory?
Information is more effectively encoded when it is acted out (for example, through role playing) at the time of storage.
What you are thinking about is activated; other things stored in your memory are in an inactive state.
You must repeat information several times if it is to be stored effectively.
Different pieces of information in memory interact with one another, so that you often remember something differently from how which you first stored it.

The textbook recommends a number of ways in which to increase students’ attention in class. Which one of the following is not recommended?
Ask questions frequently.
Vary the method of presentation.
Place easily distractible students near the teacher.
Have several different activities going on simultaneously.

Each of the following teachers is reviewing materials their students will need to know for the upcoming final exam. Three of the following teachers are reviewing in a way that is sensitive to their students cognitive load capacity? Which teacher is not?
Andrews puts all of the information students will need to know for the exam on the board and instructs the students to copy it into notes.
Brown presents the information separated into sections. He completes one section before moving on to the next.
Carey presents the information slowly and includes many examples and illustrations.
Daniels stops and repeats difficult concepts and often re-words confusing information.

Three of the following teachers are practicing principles from contemporary memory theory. Which teacher is not?
Adamson tells his students that, with practice, they will be able to do complicated long division problems in their heads.
Borelli tells her students that they should not try to remember every detail in their 100-page reading assignment, but instead should focus on main ideas.
Canton makes sure that students are paying attention before he begins an explanation of photosynthesis.
Darwin talks about how famous battles in history are in some ways similar to the fights students sometimes have on the playground.
Only one of the following teachers is applying contemporary memory theory. Which one?
Alphonso suggests that students in her Russian class listen to Russian tapes while they sleep.
Bancroft helps students identify important ideas in their textbooks.
Cranston asks her students to memorize definitions of 15 geometric figures.
Dominowski suggests that his students put information for tomorrow’s test in their short-term memories.

Essay Questions

In each of the three situations below, information enters a student’s memory system. For each situation, use the dual-store model of memory to: (1) identify the last component of memory in which the event has been stored, and (2) explain how you arrived at your conclusion.
Thursday night, Jennifer studies for a test on Friday morning. She remembers the material quite accurately on Tuesday and gets an A on the test. When she takes a review test two months later, however, she can no longer remember that same material.
Justin is trying to learn information in his textbook. His eyes are focused on the words in front of him, but he is thinking about the fishing trip he has planned for the weekend.
After her French teacher says, “Merci beaucoup,” Josephine repeats the phrase, then she immediately turns to talk to her friend.

Distinguish among the sensory register, working memory, and long-term memory in terms of the following:
Capacity
Duration
The form(s) in which information tends to be stored

Describe relevant research to support your statements.

The textbook identifies eight characteristics of a situation that tend to draw one’s attention. Describe five of these characteristics. For each one, give an example to illustrate its effect.

Describe what psychologists mean when they say that attention and working memory have a limited capacity. Discuss at least two implications of this limited capacity for learning in the classroom.

Contemporary memory theorists disagree about whether working memory and long-term memory are distinctly different entities. Describe two sources of evidence that support a dual-store model of memory and two sources of evidence that support a single-store model.

You are giving a lecture on a topic you know will be difficult for your students to understand and remember. Describe the steps you should take to maximize the probability that:
Your students will store the information in their working memories.
The information won’t exceed the limits of students’ working memory capacities.
Your students will, from the perspective of a levels-of-processing perspective, process the information in a “deep” fashion.

CHAPTER 8

LONG-TERM MEMORY STORAGE AND RETREIVAL PROCESSES

Multiple Choice Questions

Which one of the following is the most accurate statement about how people perceive the world around them?
1. Visual perception is heavily dependent on sensation, whereas auditory perception is not.
2. Auditory perception is heavily dependent on sensation, whereas visual perception is not.
3. People often fill in information that they do not actually sense.
4. Perception is almost totally a function of what is sensed.

A teacher tells his class, “For tomorrow’s class, read pages 23 to 49 in your geography book.” Three of the following students are demonstrating the process of construction in their perceptions of what their teacher has said. Which student is not?
1. Anthony doesn’t hear what the teacher says because his mind is on something else.
2. Bonita thinks the teacher is saying “history book.”
3. Christopher “hears” the teacher say “pages 33 to 39” because the student next to him is coughing loudly.
4. Dena understands the teacher even though the teacher speaks with a slight accent and mispronounces the word geography.

Maria moved to this country several months ago. She has been studying English as a second language but still has much to learn about the language of her new homeland. One day her teacher tells the class, “Bring an empty coffee can to school tomorrow for a project we’re going to do.” Maria hears only two familiar words—”coffee” and “school”—and guesses that her teacher is saying that students should not drink coffee at school. Maria’s misinterpretation illustrates which one of the following?
1. Conceptual change
2. Auditory imagery
3. Construction in retrieval
4. Construction in storage

Of the following four teachers, which one is probably presenting an ambiguous stimulus to students?
1. Aurora asks students to raise their hand if they can find England on a globe.
2. Benedict stares at a student without smiling.
3. Cornwall says, “Please take out a pencil.”
4. Dalton wears a new sweater.

In an early investigation of memory, Frederic Bartlett asked students to read a story called The War of the Ghosts and then on later occasions asked them to recall the story. Bartlett made a number of observations about how students’ recollections of the story were different from the story itself. Which of the following was not one of his observations?
1. Students retold the story in a way that made little sense.
2. Students remembered the main idea of the story.
3. Students retold the story in different words.
4. Students forgot many of the story’s details.

Nicole learns the formula “E = mc2” by repeating it to herself over and over again. Which one of the following processes is Nicole most clearly demonstrating?
1. elaboration
2. meaningful learning
3. rehearsal
4. internal organization

To learn how to spell rhinoceros, Paula repeats the letters of the word over and over again without really thinking about what she is saying. Considering research findings about the effectiveness of rehearsal, we can predict that Paula’s strategy will be:
1. Highly effective
2. Effective only if she says the letters in a very loud voice
3. Effective only if she says the letters slowly (e.g., at a rate of one letter per second)
4. Relatively ineffective

Travis realizes that the year World War II ended—1945—is the same year that his grandfather was born. Which one of the following processes is Travis most clearly demonstrating?
1. elaboration
2. meaningful learning
3. rehearsal
4. internal organization

Considering research described in the textbook regarding meaningful learning, which one of the following students is most likely to remember what the word effervescent means?
1. Alice thinks, “The word has four Es.”
2. Betty thinks, “The word describes me…I have a bubbly personality.”
3. Carolyn thinks, “The ending is the same as the ending of adolescent.”
4. Donna thinks, “I’ll bet it comes from the Latin word fervere, meaning ‘boil.’”

To help herself learn the early explorers of the New World, Jessica makes a chart that lists the Spanish explorers together, the Portuguese explorers together, the French explorers together, and so on. Which one of the following processes is Jessica most clearly demonstrating?
1. elaboration
2. meaningful learning
3. rehearsal
4. internal organization

Jeff wants to remember the twelve signs of the zodiac: Aries (ram), Taurus (bull), Gemini (twins), Cancer (crab), Leo (lion), Virgo (virgin), Libra (balance), Scorpio (scorpion), Sagittarius (archer), Capricorn (goat), Aquarius (water carrier), and Pisces (fish). He does not necessarily want to remember them in any particular order. Considering research results described in the textbook, which one of the following techniques will maximize Jeff’s chances of remembering all twelve?
1. Study the signs exactly as they are listed above.
2. Put the signs in alphabetical order (Aquarius, Aries, Cancer, etc.)
3. Put the signs in alphabetical order in terms of their English meanings (archer, balance, bull, etc.).
4. Organize the signs into three groups: people, animals, and things.

Tyler learns that Christopher Columbus’s first voyage across the Atlantic was financed by Queen Isabella of Spain. He thinks to himself, “She probably thought she would make a profit on her investment.” When he stops to consider the queen’s motives, Tyler is demonstrating which one of the following processes?
1. elaboration
2. meaningful learning
3. rehearsal
4. internal organization

To pass the time one day, Keisha multiplies 2 by 2 by 2 by 2 … and so on, on her calculator. She observes that the products increase in size more dramatically with each calculation. A few weeks later, when her math teacher explains what it means for something to increase exponentially, Keisha realizes that she has already discovered this idea on her own, and she remembers it better as a result. Which one of the following concepts best characterizes Keisha’s enhanced understanding of an exponential increase?
1. The generation effect
2. Internal organization
3. A meaningful learning set
4. Implicit knowledge

A biology teacher wants students to remember the various components of a cell (nucleus, cytoplasm, cell membrane). Considering what research tells us about long-term memory storage, the teacher would be well advised to help students encode information about the cell:
1. Primarily in a visual form, because visual images usually remain vivid in memory for a long period of time
2. Primarily in a verbal form, because language underlies much of human learning
3. In both visual and verbal forms, because multiple forms of encoding increase the likelihood of retrieval
4. In a relatively unencoded form for a few days, to allow for greater flexibility in encoding later on

The four students described below are using visual imagery to try to remember information. Considering what theorists and researchers say about the strengths and weaknesses of visual imagery, only one student is likely to remember this information accurately. Which one?
1. Anna sees a pentagon and erroneously calls it a hexagon. The following day she is asked to draw the figure she saw.
2. Bob studies a map of the Soviet Union. The following day he is asked to draw a map of the Soviet Union, including the locations of mountains, rivers, and major cities.
3. Cora studies 30 pictures at an art museum. The following day she is asked to identify them from among 60 pictures.
4. Dave tries to form a visual image of the word accommodation. The following day he is asked to spell it.

Which one of the following statements best describes how learners are apt to acquire procedural knowledge?
1. In some cases, learners first learn it as declarative knowledge; with time and practice, it gradually becomes procedural knowledge.
2. Learners initially learn it as one or more auditory images; eventually, they recode it into visual images.
3. Learners typically acquire it in a rapid, all-or-none fashion; one minute they don’t have it, the next minute they do.
4. In acquiring procedural knowledge, learners bypass working memory; the knowledge goes immediately from the sensory register into long-term memory.

According to the textbook, we will form a connection between a new piece of information and something we already know only if:
1. The connection between them is readily apparent.
2. Both things are in working memory at the same time.
3. The two things are encoded in the same way (i.e., as eidetic images, productions, or propositions).
4. The two things were learned in the same environmental context.

Trinh is about to start a unit on sharks. Some of her students have a strong interest in sharks and know a lot about them. Others know very little about sharks. When Ms. Trinh gives a reading assignment about sharks, she should expect that:
1. Students with more background knowledge will understand the reading material more readily than their classmates.
2. Students’ reading comprehension will depend almost entirely on their word decoding skills; their prior knowledge won’t make much of a difference.
3. Students with more background knowledge are less likely to double-check their understanding and so will make more comprehension errors.
4. Students with less background knowledge may be reluctant to read about an unfamiliar topic; thus, motivating them to learn during the unit will be a challenge.

Generally speaking, adults learn and remember more easily than children do. The reverse is true, however, when the children:
1. Initially know more about the topic being studied than the adults do
2. Get at least 8 hours of sleep per night
3. Engage in daily exercises designed to expand working memory capacity
4. Are instructed to close their eyes and listen very closely

Generally speaking, elaboration helps students learn new information. An exception to this rule is when students elaborate on this information:
1. After having already organized it in a hierarchical fashion
2. Using previously stored erroneous information
3. Using information they stored many years earlier
4. Very quickly

A student reads the statement, “To be or not to be, that is the quastion,” and fails to notice the typographical error in the word question. This proofreading error can best be explained by considering the role of _________ in long-term memory storage.
1. closure
2. similarity
3. expectations
4. rehearsal

Which one of the following most accurately describes the difference between skilled readers and beginning readers in terms of their attention to what they read?
1. Skilled readers probably attend to all of the words in a sentence, whereas beginning readers overlook many of the words.
2. Skilled readers probably attend equally to all letters in a word, whereas beginning readers often overlook the first letters of a word.
3. Skilled readers probably attend equally to all letters in a word, whereas beginning readers often overlook the last letters of a word.
4. Skilled readers probably attend to fewer letters and words than beginning readers.

Which one of the following teachers provides the best example of the halo effect?
1. Abrams likes Frank better than Mark even though Mark is more polite of the two students.
2. Bernadette always gives students the benefit of the doubt when they exhibit “borderline” test performance.
3. Cordell overrates Cathy’s gymnastic skills because she is head cheerleader.
4. DiStefano believes that all students can learn calculus if they study hard enough.

After his class returns from a field trip to the local historical museum, Mr. Cordova asks his students to write an essay describing the things they learned at the museum. Considering factors that influence memory storage, which one of the following effects should writing the essay have on what the students will later remember about the field trip?
1. They will remember the trip better than if they had not written about it.
2. They will tend to confuse aspects of the trip with previous field trips that they’ve written about in other essays.
3. Although they won’t necessarily remember any more about the trip, what they do remember will tend to be remembered more as visual images than it might have been otherwise.
4. Writing about the trip will enhance students’ short-term memory of the trip, but it will not necessarily enhance their long-term memory of it.

A physics teacher asks her students to draw a picture to illustrate the forces at work when someone throws a ball into the air. This strategy should do two things to help students remember the forces involved. In particular, it should encourage students to engage in both:
1. implicit and explicit understanding
2. rote learning and automaticity
3. enactment and visual imagery
4. verbalization and facilitative expectations

Morris is taking an introductory Russian course. In the early weeks of the course, he studies new Russian vocabulary words 10 times each, all in the same evening. Later on, he discovers that he can remember Russian words better over the long run if he studies them twice in an evening for five evenings in a row. Morris has discovered:
1. the spacing effect
2. the generation effect
3. the importance of consolidation
4. the advantages of implicit learning

Occasional review of previously learned material helps our memory for that material by:
1. promoting controlled processing
2. limiting the spread of activation
3. increasing associations with other things we know
4. increasing the precision of our visual images

Which one of the following is the best example of controlled processing?
1. A child sitting in the back seat of a car
2. A teenager learning to drive
3. A bus driver driving slowly down the street
4. An adult driving over the speed limit down the street

Which one of the following students is definitely demonstrating automaticity in word recognition?
1. When Samantha reads aloud, her voice lacks expression.
2. When Roland reads, he has to sound out most of the words.
3. When Kristen reads, she recognizes words by sight and recalls their meanings instantaneously.
4. When Werner listens to someone say a new word, he closes his eyes and tries to imagine how it might be spelled.

An advantage of knowing some skills to a level of automaticity is that automaticity:
1. Lessens the working memory load for a task involving those skills
2. Facilitates the development of schemas and scripts for those skills
3. Facilitates the meaningful learning of those skills
4. Facilitates the internal organization of those skills

Successful retrieval of information from long-term memory depends on three of the following factors. On which one does retrieval not depend?
1. The part of long-term memory being searched
2. How the information was stored in the first place
3. The duration of working memory
4. Relevant retrieval cues

Maria is listening to her teacher talk about how rainy weather develops. Maria thinks, “Rain … hmm, it’s supposed to rain tomorrow … I wonder where I left my umbrella … I think I took it to the library yesterday … I’ll bet that’s where I left my notebook, too.” Maria’s thoughts illustrate:
1. construction in storage
2. construction in retrieval
3. retrieval cues
4. spreading activation

Albert grew up in Germany but now lives in England. He recalls more about his childhood in Germany when he’s speaking in German than when he’s speaking in English. Which one of the following concepts best explains this fact?
1. flashbulb memory
2. encoding specificity
3. spreading activation
4. fan effect

Lucy sees a boy who looks very familiar to her, but she can’t remember who he is. Then the boy says something with a thick French accent, and Lucy suddenly realizes that he is the foreign exchange student from France. In this situation, the boy’s French accent helps Lucy remember by:
1. Restricting the spread of activation
2. Providing a retrieval cue
3. Helping her elaborate on stored information
4. Facilitating a reorganization of her long-term memory

Randall is trying to remember how to spell the word separate. He retrieves the first three letters (S E P) and the last four (R A T E) and assumes that the fourth letter must be E because he usually pronounces the word like this: “SEP-ER-ATE.” Randall’s process of remembering how to spell the word (in this case, incorrectly) illustrates the use of:
1. a script
2. a retrieval cue
3. construction in retrieval
4. encoding cue

Which one of the following is the best example of a flashbulb memory?
1. Remembering exactly what you were doing when you heard very upsetting news
2. Retrieving a detailed visual image of how a parent or sibling looks
3. Recalling a dream and erroneously thinking that it actually happened to you
4. Vividly remembering an event that never happened, not even in your dreams

William is shopping at a convenience store when a man rushes in, shoots the store clerk in the arm, hurriedly cleans out the cash register, and then speeds away in a pickup truck. Later, a detective asks William to describe the woman who was waiting for the thief in the truck. The fact is, William didn’t see a woman in the truck, but after the detective urges him to “think hard and try to remember her,” he begins to recall seeing a blonde woman sitting in the passenger side of the truck. This situation illustrates:
1. the misinformation effect
2. a retrieval cue
3. spreading activation
4. encoding specificity

Occasionally people have false memories, “recalling” events that never actually happened. Three of the following false memories are consistent with research findings regarding when false memories are likely to form. Which one is inconsistent with research findings?
1. After seeing a photo of a girl who looks like her riding an elephant, 10-year-old Sally says, “Oh, yes, I remember that elephant ride.”
2. Eighteen-year-old Mark recalls attending a Jewish Bar Mitzvah when he was 13, even though he isn’t Jewish and doesn’t have any friends who are Jewish.
3. Four-year-old Carmen is asked to imagine herself going to Disney World and meeting Snow White. Several months later she claims she actually did meet Snow White.
4. As a requirement for his psychology class, 20-year-old Damion participates in a research study in which he’s asked to read a group of 10 interrelated words (e.g., bed, pillow, dream). Afterward he claims that one of the words was sleep, even though it wasn’t included in the list.

When Gianna returns to college after a summer touring France, she tells her roommate about her many experiences. She does not always remember them accurately, however, so she fills in the gaps in her memory with logical details about how things “must” have happened. Several weeks later, she is telling another friend about her trip. Gianna will probably:
1. Remember her experiences more accurately than she had previously
2. Feel very confused about what things actually did and did not happen in France
3. Have different gaps in her memory than she did when talking to her roommate, and so construct very different recollections of her experiences in France
4. Remember her experiences in France as occurring in essentially the way that she previously described them to her roommate

Richard is studying both French and Spanish. In the same week he learns that the French word for “mother” is mère and that the Spanish word for “mother” is madre. One day his French teacher asks Richard, “Who is married to your father?” and Richard erroneously answers, “Madre.” Richard’s memory error can best be explained in terms of:
1. decay
2. interference
3. inhibition
4. failure to consolidate

What device did Benjamin Franklin invent to help people read better? It may take you a long time to think of the answer—bifocal lenses—because Ben was responsible for so many other inventions as well. In this situation, your lengthy retrieval time can best be explained in terms of:
1. too many retrieval cues
2. construction errors
3. the fan effect
4. repression

After meeting a new neighbor, Shandra mistakenly calls him “David” on several occasions. Eventually the neighbor kindly corrects her, saying, “My name is actually Darren.” After that, Shandra correctly calls the man “Darren,” but initially she has to work hard not to call him “David” instead. Which one of the following concepts best characterizes the change in Shandra’s memory?
1. retrieval-induced forgetting
2. encoding specificity
3. the misinformation effect
4. a retrieval cue

Robert does not recognize the police officer that came to the door last month to tell him that his dog had been killed by a car. Robert’s lapse of memory can probably best be explained in terms of:
1. the fan effect
2. interference
3. construction error
4. repression

Jenny is taking a quiz, which asks for the chemical symbols of 20 elements. She remembers 19 of them but cannot remember the symbol for mercury. As she walks home from school, she suddenly remembers that the symbol for mercury is Hg. Jenny’s memory problem during the quiz can best be explained in terms of:
1. decay
2. repression
3. construction error
4. failure to retrieve

Which one of the following examples best illustrates a problem with prospective memory?
1. Meredith can’t remember anything that happened in the few minutes before she was in an automobile accident.
2. Marcus forgets to keep the appointment he made with his teacher after school.
3. Juan can’t recall something his teacher told him because he was thinking about something else while she was talking to him.
4. Chloe sees a person she knows she has met before, but she can’t remember the person’s name.

To remind her 6-year-old son Steven to bring his umbrella home from school, a mother pins a piece of paper with a picture of an umbrella to Steven’s jacket collar. Steven’s mother is helping him remember the umbrella through the use of:
1. a script
2. the fan effect
3. an external retrieval cue
4. implicit knowledge

Nora was thinking about something else the day her teacher explained the difference between the words between and among, so she has trouble using these two prepositions correctly. Nora’s problem “remembering” the difference between the words can probably best be explained as:
1. failure to retrieve
2. construction error
3. failure to store
4. repression

Psychologists have offered three of the following as possible explanations for the phenomenon of infantile amnesia. Which one have they not suggested?
1. Infants have virtually no working memory capacity.
2. Most of what infants learn takes the form of implicit rather than explicit knowledge.
3. Infants cannot yet talk about their experiences and so have trouble encoding them in forms that are easily retrieved.
4. Infants’ brains are insufficiently mature to think about things in the ways that older children and adults do.

Iwata has a long-term goal for her science students—to consider what they have learned about science as they deal with issues and problems in their daily lives. Which one of the following teaching strategies will best help her students retrieve relevant scientific principles in situations where the principles might be applied?
1. Teach students how to take good notes about classroom subject matter.
2. Associate those principles with as many real-life situations as possible.
3. Maximize the use of concrete materials, and minimize the use of abstract ideas.
4. Maximize the use of abstract ideas, and minimize the use of concrete materials.

The textbook distinguishes between teacher-directed and learner-directed forms of instruction. Which one of the following best describes how teachers should view these two approaches?
1. Generally speaking, teacher-directed instruction is more effective than student-directed instruction.
2. Generally speaking, student-directed instruction is more effective than teacher-directed instruction.
3. Teacher-directed instruction is recommended for the elementary and middle school grades; student-directed instruction is recommended for the high school grades.
4. Either approach can be effective only to the extent that it promotes effective storage and retrieval processes.

Which one of the following statements best illustrates prior knowledge activation in a geometry lesson?
1. “Today we will be studying three different kinds of triangles: acute, right, and obtuse.”
2. “Calculating the volume of a sphere is similar to a procedure you learned last month—calculating the area of a circle.”
3. “Okay, class, it’s time to put your reading assignment away so that we can begin today’s geometry lesson.”
4. “Do you know how many square feet you have in your bedroom? After learning how to calculate the area of a rectangle today, you will know how to figure out exactly how big your bedroom is.”

Three of these teachers will probably promote meaningful learning in their students. Which one is unlikely to do so?
1. Pulos shows how the area of a triangle (area = ¹/₂base x height) is half of something they already know—the area of a rectangle.
2. Rubenstein asks her students to define peninsula in their own words.
3. Warner encourages his third graders to practice their cursive letters at least once every day.
4. Elms points out that the German word krank (meaning “sick”) might be related to the English word cranky.

Three of the following statements are examples of possible advance organizers for a geometry lesson. Which statement is not an advance organizer as the term is typically defined?
1. “Today we will be studying three different kinds of triangles: acute, right, and obtuse.”
2. “Okay, class, it’s time to put your reading assignment away so that we can begin today’s geometry lesson.”
3. “Calculating the volume of a sphere is similar to a procedure you learned last month—calculating the area of a circle.”
4. “Do you know how many square feet you have in your bedroom? After learning how to calculate the area of a rectangle today, you will know how to figure out exactly how big your bedroom is.”

One of the history teachers below is violating a principle recommended for promoting long-term memory storage during instruction. Which teacher is doing so?
1. Annenberg explains to his students how the American Revolution was an almost inevitable outcome of certain English policies at the time.
2. Bartholomew begins her discussion of the American Civil War by drawing some parallels between it and something the class has already studied—the American Revolution.
3. At the beginning of a unit on World War I, Mr. Cortez gives his students several questions they should be able to answer at the end of the unit.
4. DeLuca talks in a relaxed conversational style, describing different battles of World War II as they come to mind.

Which one of the following best illustrates the use of a concept map?
1. Alexander puts the words force, gravity, velocity, acceleration, and time on the chalkboard; she then draws lines between pairs of related words and describes the relationships.
2. Blanchard draws a chart listing the sequence of events leading up to World War II in chronological order.
3. Calvin draws a chart showing the hierarchy that biologists use to classify animals; his chart includes vertebrates, invertebrates, mammals, fish, birds, mollusks, crustaceans, and so on.
4. Dubroski lists the characteristics of the canine family in biology.

A teacher who wants students to elaborate on the material they are studying would be well advised to:
1. ask higher-level questions.
2. give signals about what is important to learn.
3. summarize the main ideas presented each day.
4. provide an advance organizer before every lesson.

In a science lesson on heat, Ms. Jones explains that heat is the result of molecules moving back and forth very quickly and that gases are heated more quickly than liquids. The following day, she asks her class the following four questions. Which one is a higher-level question?
1. “Who can remember yesterday’s discussion about heat?”
2. “What is heat?”
3. “Which one is heated more quickly—a gas or a liquid?”
4. “Why is it cooler near the ocean on a hot summer day?”

Which one of the following statements describes wait time and its effect on learning?
1. When teachers give students about five minutes of “thinking time” at the beginning of class, students are more likely to learn class material meaningfully.
2. When teachers allow students more time to learn something, students learn it more thoroughly.
3. When teachers wait until students are ready to pay attention, students are more likely to learn effectively.
4. When teachers allow students more time to respond to a question, students are more likely to answer the question, and often with a more complex response.

Gaydos wants to teach a group of people how to perform the Heimlich maneuver. Three of the following strategies should help his students learn the maneuver more effectively. Given what we know about teaching procedural knowledge, which strategy is least likely to be effective in helping students learn the procedure correctly?
1. Gaydos gives his students an opportunity to practice the maneuver on a realistic human dummy.
2. Gaydos shows his students pictures of the various steps involved in the maneuver.
3. Gaydos describes Dr. Heimlich’s medical background and his motivation for developing the procedure.
4. Gaydos encourages his students to talk themselves through the procedure as they perform it.

Three of the following teachers are using strategies that should help students effectively learn and remember information. Which one is not necessarily promoting effective cognitive processing?
1. Ayotte helps students identify important ideas in their textbooks.
2. Bertinelli has students repeat definitions of new vocabulary words out loud.
3. Canton explains the rationale underlying a complex problem-solving procedure.
4. Darwin talks about how famous battles in history are in some ways similar to the fights students sometimes have on the playground.

A revision of Bloom’s taxonomy published in 2001 (described in the textbook) can help teachers consider not only the various types of cognitive processes that should be encouraged but also the:
1. Environmental contexts in which each process is most suitable
2. Types of knowledge to which those processes might be applied
3. Specific instructional methods most effective in fostering each process
4. Forms that those processes might take in literacy, mathematics, science, and social studies

Which one of the following is least likely to be a good predictor of how well a person will remember a piece of information a year or two after learning it?
1. The speed with which the person learned it in the first place
2. The extent to which the person related it to other information in his or her long-term memory
3. The extent to which the person tried to apply the information to new situations
4. The frequency with which the person subsequently reviewed the information
As a teacher, you want your students to use effective information processing strategies as they study classroom subject matter. You consider research about the effects of classroom assessment tasks on learning, and you conclude that you should:
1. Ask many short questions rather than a few lengthy ones.
2. Assess students’ rote knowledge of the material first, then ask higher-level questions about the material in a subsequent assessment.
3. Give assessment tasks that require meaningful understanding of the material.
4. Not give paper-pencil tests at all.

Essay Questions

Explain how the process of construction is often involved in long-term memory storage. Illustrate your explanation with a concrete example.

Distinguish between controlled processing and automatic processing, and give a concrete example to illustrate each one. Also, describe two advantages of learning something to a level of automaticity.

Students’ prior knowledge about a topic often influences their ability to learn something new about the topic. Explain how students’ prior knowledge is involved in each of the following long-term memory storage processes:
1. Meaningful learning
2. Organization
3. Elaboration
4. Visual imagery

Choose a topic with which you are familiar, and imagine that you have to give a half-hour lecture on that topic. Describe your topic, then explain in concrete terms the steps you would take in your lecture to maximize the likelihood that your listeners would engage in:
1. Meaningful learning
2. Organization
3. Elaboration
4. Visual imagery

It is ten years from now. A friend says to you, “Hey, you took a course on learning theory. Explain to me what the process of elaboration” You think about this for a minute and then realize that you cannot remember the information your friend is asking for. Give four possible explanations, each based on a different theory of forgetting, as to why you are unable to remember this concept from your learning theory course.

Explain the role that construction plays in retrieval. Give a concrete example of how construction can help retrieval. Also, give a concrete example of how it can lead to an inaccurate recollection.

As a teacher, you want your classroom assessments to help students learn class subject matter more effectively. With the textbook’s discussion of classroom assessment practices in mind, describe three strategies you can use to help your assessments become valuable learning tools for your students.

CHAPTER 9

THE NATURE OF KNOWLEDGE

Multiple Choice Questions

You can easily remember your birth date; perhaps you can also remember what you did on your last birthday. The difference between these two pieces of knowledge can best be characterized as a difference between:
1. declarative vs. procedural knowledge
2. semantic vs. episodic memory
3. conceptual vs. conditional knowledge
4. explicit vs. implicit memory

You know how to use long division to solve a math problem; you also know that 28 divided by 4 equals 7. The difference between these two pieces of knowledge can best be characterized as a difference between:
1. procedural vs. declarative knowledge
2. semantic vs. episodic memory
3. conceptual vs. conditional knowledge
4. explicit vs. implicit memory

Which one of the following is the best example of conceptual knowledge?
1. Knowing who shot Martin Luther King, Jr.
2. Remembering the twelve months of the year in their correct order
3. Knowing how to keep your balance on a bicycle even on a bumpy road
4. Knowing why the moon has different phases (e.g., half moon, full moon)

Which one of the following examples best illustrates implicit rather than explicit knowledge?
1. Knowing that vertebrates are animals with backbones
2. Knowing that doing well on the GRE exams is important for getting into graduate school
3. Knowing how to create grammatically correct sentences in everyday conversation
4. Knowing how to use footnotes in a research paper

Which one of the following statements best describes how information is encoded in long-term memory?
1. Mostly as images—how things look, sound, feel, or smell
2. Almost entirely as underlying meanings, or semantic codes
3. Mostly in terms of the words of the first language a person has learned
4. In a variety of possible forms

Knowing what famous people look like reflects knowledge that is encoded in long-term memory as:
1. productions
2. propositions
3. verbal codes
4. images

Which one of the following behaviors would suggest to you that a person has encoded information at least partly as visual imagery?
1. Sasha can easily answer the question, “How old are you?”
2. Roger uses his hands to show the length of a fish he caught last week.
3. Marianne reads aloud a particularly descriptive paragraph from Moby Dick.
4. Jayden appears to be quite surprised to learn that a heavy metal object can float if it’s hollow inside.

Which one of the following most accurately describes a production?
1. Organizing a set of interrelated propositions
2. Remembering information differently than it was stored
3. Knowing how to respond to different environmental conditions
4. Knowing the component parts of an object or event

Which of the following most accurately describes information that was encoded in the form of a production?
1. John rides his bike down his street faster than his friend’s street.
2. Jenny is a very careful driver and never drives over the speed limit.
3. If Jake approaches a yellow light while driving he steps on the brake to slow down.
4. Julie does not know how to ride a bike, but is a skilled roller skater.

Which one of the following is the best example of a symbol as psychologists define the term?
1. The word carpet
2. The honking sound that a goose makes
3. A leaky faucet
4. Snow

A well-known nursery rhyme (e.g., “Humpty Dumpty sat on a wall . . . ”) is most likely to be stored in long-term memory as one or more:
1. productions
2. propositions
3. verbal codes
4. images

Corey understands the general meanings of 20 new vocabulary words, but to prepare for an upcoming quiz, he also memorizes the specific definitions his teacher has provided on a study guide. Two weeks later, he is given a surprise quiz on those vocabulary words. Considering research findings described in the text, we would expect that Corey:
1. Can still remember all the definitions verbatim
2. Can define the general meaning most of the vocabulary words but cannot necessarily remember the original definitions verbatim
3. Can recognize the vocabulary words he studied but cannot define them
4. Can recognize only about 25% of the vocabulary words he studied

Knowledge about the general plot of a novel one has read is probably stored in long-term memory as:
1. productions
2. propositions
3. verbal codes
4. images

Theorists conceptualize propositions as abstract entities but usually describe them in terms of words. This sentence:

Susan gives her brother a big kiss.

reflects several propositions that are likely to be stored in long-term memory. Three of the statements below reflect propositions contained within the sentence. Which statement does not reflect a proposition contained within the sentence?

Susan has a brother.
Susan gives the brother a kiss.
Susan likes the brother.
The kiss is big.

Memory theorists believe that people encode information in long-term memory in a number of different ways. They also believe that:
1. Propositions are eventually transformed into images.
2. Images represent information more precisely than propositions do.
3. One form of encoding information—the verbal code—is by far the most prevalent.
4. Pieces of information stored in different codes are associated with one another.

Jacob knows that lions and tigers are both members of the cat family, and that cats and dogs are all mammals. Which one of the following statements best describes the information Jacob has stored?
1. It is organized as a hierarchy.
2. It is organized as a network.
3. It is encoded in the form of visual images.
4. It is encoded in the form of productions.

Which one of the following behaviors is most consistent with the idea that long-term memory is organized as a hierarchy?
1. Aaron answers the question, “Is a barracuda a fish?” faster than he answers the question, “Is a barracuda an animal?”
2. Betsy answers the question, “Is a tree a living thing?” faster than she answers the question, “Is a tree a plant?”
3. When asked to picture a robin in his mind, Colin describes his image in vivid detail.
4. When asked to explain how to climb a tree, Darla describes a detailed series of arm and leg movements.

Gretchen thinks about Christopher Columbus, which reminds her of Spain, which in turn reminds her that she needs to do her homework for her Spanish class. Which one of the following statements best explains Gretchen’s train of thought?
1. Long-term memory is organized as a hierarchy.
2. Long-term memory is organized as a network.
3. The information is encoded in the form of visual images.
4. The information is encoded in the form of productions.

From a propositional network perspective of long-term memory, meaningful learning is best described as a process of:
1. Modifying the arguments of existing propositions
2. Modifying the relations of existing propositions
3. Connecting one or more new propositions to the network
4. Hierarchically organizing existing propositions within the network

Which one of the following statements best describes the notion of parallel distributed processing?
1. Working memory and long-term memory are two components of the memory system that, while occasionally interacting, often function independently of each other.
2. Working memory has several “compartments,” enabling a number of unrelated pieces of information to be processed at the same time.
3. In some instances, information stored in the sensory register can move directly into long-term memory.
4. A single piece of information is stored in numerous places in long-term memory, with its retrieval and processing occurring at all locations simultaneously.

Which one of the following is the best example of an abstract concept rather than a concrete concept?
1. Green
2. Pleasure
3. Rectangle
4. Cantaloupe

Four-year-old Kristen was asked if her mother’s friend Jennifer was her aunt. Kristen responded: “yes, because she is a female adult who loves me and comes to my house for Thanksgiving”. Kristen was not able to identify that Jennifer is a_______________ of aunts.
1. correlational feature
2. defining feature
3. positive instance
4. negative instance

Eight-year-old Mary was asked if the shark at the aquarium was a fish. She responded: “no, because that shark is too big to be fish”. Kristen was not able to identify that the shark is a _______________ of fish.
1. correlational feature
2. defining feature
3. positive instance
4. negative instance

Maureen vehemently denies that trees are plants. Her understanding of what a plant is reflects which of the following errors?
1. Overgeneralization
2. Undergeneralization
3. Confirmation bias
4. The misinformation effect

Which one of the following illustrates an overgeneralization error? The concepts in question are italicized.
1. Abe knows what the words tall and short mean, but he doesn’t realize that one is the opposite of the other.
2. Ben thinks that all animals have to have fur and four legs; therefore snakes, bumblebees, and people cannot possibly be animals.
3. Carolyn thinks that baby dolls are not real babies because they do not cry.
4. Donna thinks that whales and dolphins are kinds of fish, when they are actually mammals instead.

For the concept nurse, “female” can best be classified as:
1. a defining feature
2. a correlational feature
3. an irrelevant feature
4. a rule

Which one of the following is a defining feature of the concept island?
1. A name (e.g., “Bear Island”)
2. Inaccessible by automobile
3. Completely surrounded by water
4. At least 100 feet wide in any direction

For the concept hexagon, “large” can best be classified as:
1. an irrelevant feature
2. a defining feature
3. a correlational feature
4. a prototype

After seeing many different examples of a dog, Joe begins to form an idea of what a typical dog looks like. This process best illustrates which one of the following views of concept learning?
1. Learning defining features
2. Prototype
3. Exemplars
4. Hypothesis testing

When Mary thinks about what a dog is, several very different-looking animals come to mind, including greyhounds, German shepherds, cocker spaniels, and Chihuahuas. Which one of the following views of concept learning best characterizes Mary’s knowledge of the concept dog?
1. Learning correlational features
2. Prototype
3. Exemplars
4. Hypothesis testing

Ramon forms his concept of house after seeing numerous single-story houses in his small, middle-income town in Illinois. He is then shown pictures of an igloo in northern Canada, a mansion in Illinois, a single-story house in Mississippi, and a high-rise apartment building in New York City. Based on a prototype theory of concepts, which one is he most likely to identify as being a house?
1. The igloo
2. The mansion
3. The single-story house
4. The high-rise apartment building

In which of the following situations is a child most likely to be learning a concept through a buildup of associations?
1. Because all of his teddy bears are brown, 2-year-old Harry thinks that all bears are brown.
2. When a strange man comes to the house, Mother introduces him to 3-year-old Regina as “Uncle Albert.” Regina asks, “What’s an ‘uncle’?”
3. When peas are served at dinner, 7-year-old Molly proclaims, “I don’t like peas now and will never, ever like them!”
4. To help himself remember what a trapezoid is, 12-year-old Mark repeats the definition to himself several times in a row.

Lounge is teaching her son Joe the concept of cow by showing him pictures of both cows and bears. Joe thinks to himself, “Maybe all cows have horns; let me look at a few more pictures and check.” Joe’s reasoning best illustrates which one of the following views of concept learning?
1. Buildup of associations
2. Prototype
3. Exemplars
4. Hypothesis testing

Salience of features affects the ease with which people are likely to learn a concept. Which one of the following best illustrates a salient defining feature?
1. “Photosynthesis” is a feature of the concept
2. “Round” is a feature of the concept
3. “Getting oxygen from water” is a feature of the concept
4. A “backbone” is a feature of the concept

When learning a new concept, people are most likely to be confused when:
1. Correlational features are more salient than defining features.
2. Defining features are more salient than correlational features.
3. There are too many negative instances.
4. There are very few positive instances.

If you were teaching students a new concept, which strategy would be most effective?
1. Presenting only positive instances, so students don’t get confused.
2. Presenting only negative instances, so students aren’t overwhelmed.
3. Describing the concept’s correlational features.
4. Presenting a definition that identifies defining features.

Broderick is trying to teach his daughter Erin the concept trout. For Erin to learn to recognize trout as quickly as possible, which one of the following things should Mr. Broderick do?
1. Show her different kinds of trout (e.g., rainbow, brook) at different times.
2. Show her one kind of trout (e.g., rainbow) and one kind of non-trout (e.g., sunfish) both at the same time.
3. Show her different kinds of trout (e.g., rainbow, brook) and different kinds of non-trout (e.g., sunfish, salmon) all at the same time.
4. Show her different kinds of trout (e.g., rainbow, brook) first, then show her different kinds of non-trout (e.g., sunfish, salmon) on a later occasion.

Three of the following teachers are following recommended practices for teaching concepts. Which one is not?
1. Adams teaches the concept fruit by showing examples of many different fruits and many different non-fruits.
2. Benito teaches the concept reptile by focusing his students’ attention on pictures of dinosaurs—animals that the students especially enjoy studying.
3. Carlson teaches the concept vertebrate by giving a definition of the concept.
4. After a lesson on the concept carbohydrate, Mr. Danielson asks his students to give their own examples of the concept.

Lenesa sees a picture of a beach and then later tries to draw the picture from memory. She draws shells on the beach even though the beach in the picture had no shells. Using cognitive psychologists’ concept of schema, how could we explain Lenesa’s error?
1. Lenesa has a schema for shells but does not have one for beaches.
2. Lenesa has a schema for beaches but does not have one for shells.
3. Lenesa’s schema for a typical beach includes shells.
4. Lenesa’s schemas of beaches and shells are interfering with each other.

Four boys read this line from a story:

“The two men entered the restaurant and ordered hamburgers.”

Which one of the boys is clearly using a script while reading the story?

Alex assumes that the men looked at a menu before ordering.
Bob is guessing that the men probably have evil motives.
Colin wonders what the men look like.
Devon thinks that the men should make more healthful choices.

Gina attends a wedding ceremony conducted in a culture very different from her own, and many of the rites performed during the ceremony seem strange and unfamiliar to her. Later, she finds that she can best remember those parts of the ceremony that were similar to how weddings are performed in her own culture. In which one of the following ways would a cognitive psychologist be most likely to explain this situation?
1. Schemas encourage us to elaborate on the wide variety of stimuli we encounter over the course of our daily lives.
2. We often learn new concepts by forming and testing hypotheses about defining and correlational features.
3. Concepts are often stored in terms of exemplars.
4. We can more accurately remember events that are consistent with familiar scripts.

From the textbook’s perspective, what is a key advantage of developing schemas and scripts?
1. They reduce the amount of information we need to acquire in order to make sense of a situation.
2. They increase the likelihood that we will perceive a situation accurately.
3. They enable us to bypass working memory and store information directly in long-term memory.
4. They decrease the need for meaningful learning.

Which one of the following alternatives best illustrates the notion of a personal theory?
1. Agnes has memorized the formula a² + b² = c², but she cannot remember what the formula is called or what it’s used for.
2. Bert has memorized the formula a² + b² = c² and also knows that it’s called the Pythagorean theorem; however, he doesn’t know in what situations it is useful.
3. Christine is familiar with the formula a² + b² = c²; furthermore, she knows that the Pythagorean theorem provides a means of predicting the hypotenuse of a right triangle when the lengths of the other two sides are known.
4. Darnell thinks of living creatures as being defined in terms of their biological origins, but he thinks of manmade objects as being defined in terms of their functions.

Which one of the following statements best describes the perspective known as theory theory?
1. The ways in which people categorize their experiences usually have little relevance to physical reality.
2. In the preschool years, children develop concrete understandings of events; these understandings become increasingly abstract as they reach adolescence.
3. People develop general belief systems about how certain aspects of the world operate.
4. People form hypotheses about the defining features and correlational features of a concept and then test those hypotheses against specific examples of the concept that they encounter.

Which one of the following examples best illustrates the use of a personal theory as a child learns the concept spider?
1. Ian learns that spiders have eight legs, whereas insects have only six.
2. Rudy learns that spiders, along with scorpions and ticks, are members of the arachnid class.
3. Duc remembers how seriously ill his cousin became when she was bitten by a black widow spider.
4. Julian assumes that spiders must give birth to baby spiders, just as people give birth to baby people.

Three of the following are common misconceptions that elementary or secondary students are likely to have. Which one is not commonly found?
1. Any moving object must have a force continually acting on it.
2. Most animals can survive for months without food.
3. Boundaries between countries are designated by actual lines marked on the earth’s surface.
4. The earth is shaped like a disk.

When students have misconceptions about a concept, helping them acquire more scientifically acceptable understandings of that concept is difficult. It is most difficult when the student has:
1. Many minor misconceptions
2. One major misconceptions
3. A few well- engrained misconceptions
4. Many few well- engrained misconceptions

Children’s misconceptions about the world may come from a variety of sources. Which one of the following is not a likely source that theorists have identified?
1. Children form personal theories based on how the world appears to be.
2. Teachers and textbooks sometimes provide misinformation.
3. Children believe the stories that younger children make up.
4. Common expressions in language (e.g., the sun “sets” in the west) misrepresent reality.

Three of the following teaching strategies may foster students’ acquisition of a theory about phenomena in the natural world. Which strategy is least likely to be effective in fostering students’ theory development?
1. Show a diagram of the human digestive system.
2. Ask students to memorize a one-paragraph summary of how mitosis
3. Describe heat as something that “flows” from one object to another.
4. Engage students in a discussion about the forces that affect an arrow’s movement as it is shot from a bow.

Which one of the following best illustrates a worldview at work?
1. Ophelia is convinced that no one at school likes her.
2. Daniella thinks that the earth is round only in the way that a pancake is round.
3. On his first trip to the ocean, Eli looks toward the horizon and wonders how far the water goes.
4. When Mick falls down and sprains his ankle, Rachel says, “That must be your punishment for you for calling me nasty names yesterday.”

Which one of the following factors is likely to have the greatest influence in the development of a person’s worldview?
1. The culture in which a person grows up
2. The kinds of books a person reads as a child
3. The extent to which a person has pursued higher education
4. The person’s physical environment (e.g., whether the land is flat or mountainous)

Which one of the following illustrates conceptual change?
1. As a Boy Scout, Andy has learned how to cook a wide variety of foods over an open fire.
2. Brad misinterprets the scientific explanation of fire to fit what he believes—that fire is an object with substance and weight.
3. Charlotte used to think that fire was an actual substance, but now she knows that it’s a chemical change.
4. Dana wasn’t aware of how much damage fire could really do until the house next door burned down.

People often hold on stubbornly to their misconceptions about the world. Three of the following are possible explanations as to why this might be so. Which statement is not a likely explanation for the resilience of misconceptions?
1. Some misconceptions are central elements of people’s personal theories about the world.
2. Virtually all knowledge has a natural tendency to become distorted over time.
3. People learn school subject matter without relating it to the things they know and believe.
4. People elaborate on new information using their current misconceptions.

Which one of the following is the best example of confirmation bias?
1. Paula drops a stone and a paperclip from a second-story window. She sees that they reach the ground at the same time. “I know heavy objects fall faster,” she says, “so I must have released the paperclip earlier than the stone.”
2. Janet wonders why the moon appears bigger at the horizon than high in the sky. “Maybe it’s closer to us when it’s on the horizon,” she thinks.
3. Rodney has heard that chocolate can be poisonous to dogs and in large amounts can even be fatal. He searches the Internet for a possible explanation for this puzzling fact.
4. Elliot loves watching challenging television game shows. He tries to answer questions along with the contestants, and he keeps score to see whether he might have won cash and prizes if he had actually been on the show.

Three of the following teaching strategies should help promote conceptual change. Which one will not?
1. Pique students’ interest in classroom subject matter.
2. Identify students’ misconceptions about a topic prior to instruction.
3. Explore a few topics in depth rather than covering many topics quickly.
4. Have students learn definitions of important concepts to automaticity.

Each of the teachers below has students with misconceptions about the material they are studying. Three of the teachers are using strategies that should help their students correct these misconceptions. Which teacher is not using an effective strategy for changing misconceptions?
1. Andersen identifies and then builds on things that students correctly understand about the phenomenon at hand.
2. Bissette presents a situation that students cannot adequately explain using their current beliefs about the topic.
3. Caro reminds her students that she will be testing them on the material they are studying.
4. Darren shows students how the true explanation of something is different from, and more plausible than, their existing beliefs.

Many of Mr. Henry’s students have heard from family or friends that global climate change is a “hoax” perpetuated by certain politicians and policy makers. Mr. Henry is trying to convince them that, in fact, the earth’s overall temperature is slowly rising and that, furthermore, the change is at least partly the result of human activity. The approach most likely to be successful in promoting conceptual change about climate change is to:
1. Present both sides of the debate but discredit the “hoax” arguments
2. Present only the climate-change-is-real side of the debate
3. Explain that advocates of the “hoax” perspective have no credibility in the scientific community
4. Remind students that future generations will ultimate pay the price for this generation’s refusal to accept that climate change is real

Which of the following formative assessments is most likely to promote cognitive change?
1. A multiple-choice exam because it allows the learner to compare the correct answer with misconceptions.
2. A fill in the blank exam because it allows the learner to generate their own knowledge.
3. An oral exam because verbal explanation allows the learner to expand on their ideas.
4. A written report because the tactile experience allows the learner to solidify their knowledge.

The textbook describes Patricia Alexander’s theory regarding the development of expertise. Which one of the following statements best characterizes Alexander’s theory?
1. People develop expertise primarily by turning verbal codes and images into propositions and productions.
2. People develop expertise primarily by learning certain skills and practicing them over and over until they can perform the skills almost without thinking.
3. The development of expertise is characterized by a series of five stages of increasingly abstract problem-solving strategies.
4. The development of expertise is characterized by the acquisition of more and better integrated knowledge about a topic.

Luana is taking her first course in psychology. With regard to her knowledge of psychology, Luana is probably in Alexander’s ______ stage in the development of expertise:
1. acclimation
2. competence
3. implicit knowledge
4. undergeneralization

Only one of the following is a true statement regarding the nature of knowledge in long-term memory. Which one?
1. It is always better to learn a little bit about many topics than to learn a lot about a few topics.
2. Interconnected pieces of information are usually more useful than isolated pieces.
3. Most of our knowledge about the world is probably in episodic memory rather than in semantic memory.
4. Any single piece of information is stored in only one way.

Three of the statements below describe advantages of concepts. The fourth is an incorrect statement about concepts. Which one is incorrect?
1. Information that has been learned about concepts can be generalized to new situations.
2. Concepts make the world less complex and easier to think about.
3. Concepts invariably lead to more appropriate responses to the environment.
4. Relationships among various concepts can be learned.

Essay Questions

At least four distinct forms of encoding have been theorized to exist in long-term memory:

Encoding in terms of physical characteristics
Encoding in terms of actions
Encoding in terms of symbols
Encoding in terms of meanings

For each of these four forms of encoding, (a) explain how information is stored in long-term memory, and (b) give an example to illustrate your explanation.

Explain what theorists mean when they say that long-term memory is associationistic. Describe two different theoretical models regarding how long-term memory might be organized.

Describe three of the following perspectives regarding concept learning, and compare and contrast them regarding their usefulness in explaining how people acquire concepts:

Prototypes
Exemplars
Buildup of associations
Hypothesis testing

Choose a concept with which you are familiar, and imagine that you have to teach that concept to a classroom of students. Describe the concept that you will teach, then explain five specific things you could do to help students learn the concept.

Describe what contemporary psychologists mean by the terms schema, script, personal theory, and worldview, and explain how each of these can influence learning and memory. Use concrete examples to illustrate your discussion.

Research tells us that students’ misconceptions about a topic are often quite resistant to change, yet sometimes misconceptions must change if students are to acquire an accurate understanding of the world around them.
1. Describe three different reasons that psychologists have offered as to why students’ misconceptions are sometimes resistant to change.
2. Describe at least five different teaching strategies that theorists and researchers believe might help students change their misconceptions about the world.

CHAPTER 10

COGNITIVE-DEVELOPMENTAL PERSPECTIVES

Multiple Choice Questions

Piaget’s ideas were largely ignored by American psychologists until the 1960s. Three of the following are probable reasons why this was so. Which one is not a likely reason?
1. Piaget studied children rather than nonhuman species.
2. Piaget’s ideas were incompatible with behaviorist theory.
3. Most of Piaget’s writings were in French.
4. Piaget used research methods that were unconventional in the eyes of American psychologists.

Which one of the following statements best describes Piaget’s view of how children acquire knowledge about the world?
1. Children are naturally disposed to think about their environment in particular ways; in a sense, some basic knowledge about the world is “pre-wired.”
2. Children actively construct their own view of the world from their experiences with the environment.
3. Children repeatedly parrot their parents’ and teachers’ beliefs, eventually internalizing these beliefs as their own “knowledge.”
4. Initially, children unconsciously develop a rather complex and confused view of the world, but this view becomes simpler and more straightforward as time goes on.

Four-year-old Becky is playing with blocks, stacking them one on top of another until her towers eventually tumble, and then stacking the blocks again. Which one of the following best reflects Piaget’s view of how Becky is probably learning in this situation?
1. Because she is probably still in the sensorimotor stage, she will remember what she learns about the blocks only while the blocks are still in front of her.
2. She is absorbing information about how the environment behaves (e.g., “objects fall”) without consciously thinking about it.
3. She is actively thinking about and interpreting the results of her actions.
4. Because she builds one tower after another, she is obviously reinforced by watching her towers tumble down.

In Piaget’s theory, a scheme can best be described as:
1. A mental picture of oneself
2. A general lifestyle or cultural pattern
3. A set of motor skills that preschoolers develop
4. An organized group of similar thoughts or actions

In her first trip to a zoo, 7-year-old Latisha notices that leopards have paws very similar in shape to her cat Snowball’s paws. She also notices that leopards walk in much the same way that Snowball does. Latisha starts to wonder if perhaps leopards are cats. Latisha’s thinking illustrates Piaget’s idea that thought is characterized by:
1. egocentrism
2. conservation
3. use of schemes
4. compartmentalization

Louis receives a new soccer ball and begins to dribble it in the same way he dribbles his basketball. His dribbling of the new ball reflects Piaget’s notion of:
1. concrete operations
2. accommodation
3. cognitive structure
4. assimilation

Which one of the following clearly illustrates Piaget’s concept of assimilation?
1. Five-year-old Harvey draws on the chalkboard with a large white crayon instead of with chalk.
2. Eight-year-old Rowena develops the necessary eye-hand coordination for writing letters in cursive.
3. Eleven-year-old Mary Lou moves to a different school and purchases new clothes to fit the local fashions.
4. A language arts teacher asks 13-year-old Reynold to think about possible adjectives other than awesome that he might use in his writing to describe interesting and enjoyable activities.

Which one of the following best illustrates Piaget’s concept of accommodation?
1. After Amanda solves a set of 10 addition problems carelessly and incorrectly, she is given 10 more problems to solve.
2. Betsy writes down her definition of a mollusk—something she learned word for word from her textbook.
3. Carol copies what her teacher writes on the blackboard.
4. Donna revises her understanding of what clouds are like when she studies them in science.

Which one of the following teachers is definitely keeping in mind Piaget’s idea that assimilation and accommodation are both necessary for learning and cognitive development to occur?
1. Ames presents brand new topics every day, expecting the continual novelty to keep students interested and motivated.
2. Baretta shows students how a new topic is similar to the things they already know, but also different in certain ways.
3. Chang makes sure that students have learned one topic very, very well before moving on to another.
4. Doherty uses a lot of drill and practice exercises, encouraging students to work faster every time.

As a first-grade teacher reads a book about penguins in Antarctica, she points to Antarctica on a globe. Six-year-old John seems really puzzled. “How come they don’t fall off the earth?” he asks. From Piaget’s perspective, John can best be described as:
1. Experiencing disequilibrium
2. Having difficulty with conservation
3. Having difficulty with class inclusion
4. Accommodating when he should be assimilating

Which one of the following best describes Piaget’s notion of equilibration?
1. A child assimilates without accommodating.
2. A child doesn’t encounter any new or challenging ideas.
3. A child revises existing schemes to better understand new phenomenon.
4. A child has difficulty explaining new events using existing schemes.

According to Piaget, three of the following are essential for cognitive development. Which one is not?
1. Brain maturation
2. High self-esteem
3. Interaction with other people
4. Interaction with the physical environment

Piaget has described four stages of cognitive development. Which one of the following is an accurate statement about Piaget’s view of these stages?
1. With each successive stage, schemata become more simplified.
2. It is possible for children to skip from the pre operational state to the formal operational stage, but only a small minority of children actually do so.
3. Children have difficulty solving problems until they reach formal operations.
4. Each stage involves forms of thought qualitatively different from those of other stages.

Bobby is 3 years old and in the pre-operational state. He is speaking in complete sentences and picking up on the grammar of his native language. Which is the following statement is consistent with Piaget’s theory?
1. Bobby’s learning is delayed because he does not know 500 words.
2. Bobby’s current understanding of language builds upon his previous basic learning of language from the sensorimotor stage.
3. Bobby will be delayed in entering the concrete operational stage because at age 3 he should be able to participate in conversations with other children.
4. Bobby does not have object permanence.

Piaget’s sensorimotor stage is characterized by:
1. The beginnings of conservation
2. Basic schemes for dealing with abstract ideas
3. Schemes based primarily on perceptions and behaviors
4. Inaccurate mental representations of the physical and biological world

James is 6 months old. He likes the feel of his thumb in his mouth; therefore, whenever his thumb comes close to his face he places in thumb in his mouth. James’ action is characteristic of ______________ behavior, which dominates the sensorimotor stage.
1. object directed
2. person centered
3. goal directed
4. pleasure seeking

Which one of the following examples best illustrates Piaget’s concept of object permanence?
1. Two-year-old Jasmine looks for a favorite toy her father has just hidden in a box.
2. Six-year-old Lucas thinks that his recently deceased grandfather is still alive.
3. Ten-year-old Margaret glues the pieces of a vase she has just broken, claiming that she’ll make it look “good as new.”
4. Fifteen-year-old Kenneth finally understands his geometry teacher’s statement that two parallel lines might go on forever without ever touching.

Which one of the following examples best illustrates symbolic thought as Piaget described it?
1. Isabelle pushes a classmate off the swing so that she can use it.
2. Edward tries not to cry when his mother drops him off on the first day of kindergarten.
3. Richard actively manipulates a new toy to find out what it does.
4. Laura asks herself, “Hmm, where did I put my social studies book?”

From Piaget’s perspective, why is language critical for children’s cognitive development?
1. It helps them get things they want.
2. It gives them a means for symbolically thinking about objects and events.
3. It takes up much of their mental energy and so helps to keep them from being easily distracted.
4. It enhances their self-efficacy, because they are now aware that they can communicate effectively with other human beings.

Piaget spoke of egocentrism as a characteristic of preoperational thought. Three of the following are examples of egocentrism as Piaget defined it. Which one is not an example of preoperational egocentrism?
1. Justin is constantly grabbing objects and pulling them toward himself.
2. Lois tells a story as if her listeners already know many details they can’t possibly know.
3. Kate cannot make sense of the question “How do you think Molly feels?”
4. Frank thinks that Lucinda sees the same thing he does, even though Lucinda is in a different room.

Which one of the following reflects class inclusion as Piaget described it?
1. Getting cows and horses confused
2. Realizing that things that are cars are also vehicles
3. Identifying a shape as a square one day but as a triangle the next
4. Understanding that some behaviors that are perfectly acceptable at home are unacceptable at school

Roger is shown two piles of sand and says that each pile has the same amount. However, when one pile is flattened with a shovel, he now claims emphatically, “The flat pile has less sand.” Based on this information, Roger is probably in Piaget’s _______ stage of development.
1. preoperational
2. concrete operations
3. formal operations
4. sensorimotor

If we look at cognitive development from Piaget’s perspective, we would expect a child in the concrete operations stage to have the greatest difficulty with which one of the following questions?
1. How are an apple and a blueberry alike?
2. If you have 8 Macintosh apples and 2 Golden Delicious apples, then do you have more Macintoshes or more apples?
3. An apple pie is cut into 4 pieces. A blueberry pie of the same size is cut into 12 pieces. How many pieces of blueberry pie do you need to have the same amount as 3 pieces of the apple pie?
4. If we have one row of blueberries spread like so: o o o o o o

and another row of blueberries spread like so: o o o o o o

then does one row have more blueberries than the other?

Olivia understands why ³/₅ and ⁹/₁₅ are equivalent fractions. Based on this information, Olivia is probably in Piaget’s _______ stage of development.
1. formal operations
2. preoperational
3. concrete operations
4. sensorimotor

Which one of the following statements reflects a concern about the separation and control of variables?
1. “How do you think I should make amends with Martha? If I tell her I’m sorry, she might think I’m lying.”
2. “I’m catching more tadpoles today, but I don’t know if it’s because I’m using a larger container to catch them or because I’m working in a different part of the frog pond.”
3. “I have two tests to study for tonight—science and Spanish. I’ll study one subject before dinner and the other one after dinner so I don’t get them confused.”
4. “I’m trying to learn how to do a lay-up shot. Can you show me all the things I should do, going one step at a time?”

Choose the statement below that most accurately reflects recent research findings concerning Piaget’s theory of cognitive development.
1. The egocentrism associated with the preoperational stage continues to be common even in the upper elementary grades.
2. Concrete operational thinking abilities, such as conservation and class inclusion, develop later than Piaget believed.
3. The order in which various logical thinking capabilities emerge is consistent with the sequence that Piaget proposed.
4. Formal operational thinking abilities, such as the ability to think and reason about abstract and hypothetical ideas, begin to emerge in the preschool years.

Given current research findings, Piaget’s theories seem to have _____________ infant’s cognitive abilities and _____________ adolescent’s cognitive abilities.
1. underestimated; overestimated
2. overestimated; underestimated
3. accurately assessed; overestimated
4. overestimated; accurately assessed

Only one of the following conclusions can be derived from recent research regarding Piaget’s theory of cognitive development. Which one?
1. Middle school and secondary school students typically have an easier time thinking logically in the social sciences than they do in the physical and life sciences.
2. Children will think more logically about a topic when they have acquired relevant knowledge and experiences related to the topic.
3. Many young people continue to show signs of preoperational thinking until well into the high school years.
4. Children have an easier time understanding fractions and proportions in adolescence if such concepts are first introduced at the same time that division is introduced (e.g., in third grade).
Three of the following statements reflect contemporary views of Piaget’s stages. Which statement is not accurate?
1. The stages better reflect how children can think under optimal circumstances rather than how they typically do think in day-to-day situations.
2. Acquisition of stage-related characteristics (or not) seems to depend to some degree on the culture in which a child grows up.
3. Most formal operational capabilities emerge 2–3 years earlier than Piaget suggested.
4. Cognitive development can be better characterized as gradual trends than as four distinct stages.

Which one of the following statements best illustrates a neo-Piagetian approach to cognitive development?
1. As children grow older, their increasing working memory capacity enables them to think in qualitatively more sophisticated ways about particular content domains.
2. Children’s progression through various stages of cognitive development is almost entirely the result of environmental experiences; brain maturation has little to do with their advancements in thinking.
3. Children’s progression through various stages of cognitive development is almost entirely the result of brain maturation; environmental experiences have little to do with their advancements in thinking.
4. Children’s acquisition of various cognitive abilities occurs in a gradual, trendlike manner rather than in discrete stages.

Three of the following statements are consistent with neo-Piagetian perspectives of cognitive development. Which statement is not?
1. Formal instruction can have a significant impact on children’s cognitive development.
2. Incomplete brain maturation limits how much children at any particular age can do.
3. Through their everyday experiences, children learn some of the basic patterns in their environment even without intentionally trying to do so.
4. Cognitive development is better characterized as a series of seven (rather than four) general stages.

As Valerie grows older, she becomes increasingly proficient in a variety of tasks involving numerical reasoning, including counting, adding and subtracting, and comparing two-digit numbers. From a neo-Piagetian perspective, Valerie’s simultaneous progress in these diverse areas reflects the idea that she:
1. Is in a state of equilibrium
2. Is in her zone of proximal development for numerical tasks
3. Can assimilate diverse mathematical tasks into a single mega-scheme
4. Has a central conceptual structure for numbers

Which one of the following strategies is most likely to help students learn from a discovery learning activity?
1. Making sure students always remain in equilibrium
2. Providing some structure to guide students’ explorations
3. Providing an abstract overview of the discovery session ahead of time
4. Encouraging students to interpret their observations in ways that confirm their initial expectations

Three of the following statements are true about inquiry learning as an instructional strategy. Which statement is false?
1. Students benefit from inquiry learning activities only when they’re given total control over the topic to study and how to study it.
2. Inquiry learning activities require students to use various reasoning processes to examine the phenomena under investigation.
3. Inquiry learning activities can be effective even when they involve “experimentation” with virtual “objects” in a computer program.
4. Inquiry learning activities can create a heavy cognitive load, which exceeds children’s working memory capacities.

Which one of the following best illustrates how sociocognitive conflict might promote cognitive development?
1. Two children work together on a crossword puzzle that includes the week’s new spelling words.
2. A teenage boy worries that his friends might think he’s a “nerd” if he refuses a can of beer at a party.
3. The students in a cooperative learning group debate different ways of solving a difficult math problem.
4. Two students help each other prepare for a quiz by giving each other practice test questions.

Which one of the following would Piaget be least likely to advocate for elementary school children?
1. Discussions with classmates
2. Field trips to hands-on science museums
3. Laboratory-type experiences with physical objects
4. Lectures that describe interesting scientific facts

Bauer asks 9-year-old Anne to divide a pitcher of lemonade equally between two glasses, one each for her and her friend Kate. The two glasses are different shapes, with Anne’s being tall and thin and Kate’s being short and wide. After Anne pours the lemonade, Dr. Bauer says to her, “Look, the lemonade in your glass is higher than the lemonade in Kate’s glass. Did you give yourself more than you gave Kate?” “No,” Anne replies, “my glass is skinnier.” Dr. Bauer continues to ask Anne questions to determine how well she understands that height compensates for width in this situation. Dr. Bauer’s strategy can best be described as illustrating:
1. equilibration
2. class inclusion
3. the clinical method
4. reciprocal teaching

From Piaget’s perspective, why might it be wise to postpone the teaching of complex fractions until middle school or high school?
1. Younger students haven’t attained conservation.
2. Younger students haven’t acquired proportional reasoning.
3. Younger students can’t learn complex equations.
4. Younger students don’t know their math facts well enough.

The following four junior high school science teachers are teaching the concept molecule to their students. In each classroom, some of the students are at Piaget’s formal operations stage and others are at the concrete operations stage. In which classroom are the concrete operational students most likely to have difficulty understanding?
1. Armani lets students touch and manipulate concrete models of various molecules.
2. Bendetti lets students look at the same concrete models that Mr. Armani has used.
3. Carmen verbally describes how different elements are made up of different numbers of neutrons, protons, and electrons.
4. Davidson has students role-play being neutrons, protons, and electrons. The “neutron” and “proton” students huddle together in the middle of the room, and the “electrons” move around them.

Three of the following teaching practices are consistent with Piaget’s theory of cognitive development. Which one is not?
1. A second-grade teacher encourages students to (1) speculate about possible explanations regarding why kites of different shapes fly differently and then (2) test each explanation systematically.
2. A ninth-grade science uses a three-dimensional model of the solar system to illustrate her explanation of why it’s warmer in summer than in winter.
3. When a high school student claims that people should “Make love, not war,” his teacher urges him to consider whether such an approach would have been advisable when the Fascist movement was gaining ground in Europe in the late 1930s and early 1940s.
4. When 7-year-old Martin says that two nickels are worth more than one dime because there are two of them and they’re bigger, his teacher asks, “How can that be? Two nickels are worth ten cents, and one dime is also worth ten cents.”

Essay Questions

Describe Piaget’s concepts of assimilation and accommodation, showing how they are different processes but also how they are related to each other. Give an example that illustrates each of the two processes.

Mr. Gallagher shows a group of children two candy bars. All children agree that the two bars have the same amount of candy. Then Mr. Gallagher breaks one candy bar into small pieces. At this point, some of the children still claim that the two candy bars (one whole and one broken) have the same amount of candy. Other children, however, claim that the broken bar has more candy. Using a Piagetian framework, Mr. Gallagher concludes that the children are in two different stages of cognitive development. Which stages are the two groups of children in? Justify your decision.

Describe at least three ways in which students in Piaget’s formal operations stage are likely to think differently from those in the concrete operations stage. Illustrate each characteristic with a concrete example of how students in each of the two stages might think or behave.

Piaget was undoubtedly influential in the field of cognitive development. However, new research examining cognitive development has suggested finings that are not consistent with Piaget’s theory. Use such findings to describe three weaknesses of Piaget’s theory. Include specific examples.

CHAPTER 11

SOCIOCULTURAL THEORY AND OTHER CONTEXTUAL PERSPECTIVES

Multiple Choice Questions

Central to Vygotsky’s theory of cognitive development is the idea that children increasingly make better sense of their world:
1. Through the mental processes of assimilation and accommodation
2. By repeatedly encountering both pleasant and unpleasant events in their daily lives
3. Through their independent explorations of their physical and social environments
4. By interacting with more experienced people who mediate their understandings

In Vygotsky’s theory, three of the following would be considered lower mental functions. Which one would be considered a higher mental function?
1. Learning to walk
2. Adding 3 and 3 to get 6
3. Identifying appropriate foods to eat
4. Finding one’s way around the neighborhood

Eight-year-old Julie lives in a rural area where many people are farmers or in some other way make their living through agriculture. After a lengthy summer drought, it begins to rain heavily one day in late July. “Thank goodness!” Julie hears her father exclaim. “Our prayers have finally been answered!” Julie makes a mental note of the cause–effect relationship her father has implied—in particular, that prayer can lead to rain. This situation illustrates Vygotsky’s belief that:
1. Adults pass along to children the ways in which their culture interprets events.
2. Children’s level of potential development is always a bit higher than their actual developmental level.
3. Children acquire more knowledge and skills when scaffolding is kept to a minimum.
4. Thought and language are distinct processes in the early years of life.

Which one of the following is the best example of a cognitive tool?
1. Use of natural lighting in a studio art class
2. A jigsaw in a woodworking class
3. Use of country-western music in an aerobics class
4. The concept pi (π) in a geometry class

From Vygotsky’s perspective, why do cultural differences exist in people’s cognitive abilities?
1. Cultures differ in the extent to which they use inner speech.
2. The varying eating habits of different cultural groups influence children’s nutrition and thus also influence brain maturation.
3. Different cultures pass along somewhat different cognitive tools.
4. Some cultures mediate children’s experiences, whereas others do not.

Vygotsky proposed that thought and language are:
1. Closely connected at all stages of life
2. Largely independent before age two but closely connected thereafter
3. Closely connected early in life and become increasingly independent with age
4. Largely independent until the elementary school years and closely connected thereafter

In Vygotsky’s theory of cognitive development, what important role does inner speech play?
1. By giving themselves directions about the things to do and in what order, children guide themselves through complex tasks.
2. By using words mentally as well as orally, children develop more abstract representations of the world.
3. By practicing various grammatical structures mentally, children acquire more complex language capabilities.
4. By talking to themselves about what they should have done or said in a particular situation, children remember the situation more vividly.

Kiley is having trouble learning the steps involved in using a microscope correctly. If we consider Vygotsky’s description of how children can help themselves through difficult tasks, we should suggest that Kiley:
1. Practice each step separately many times over
2. Go through the procedure in slow motion a few times
3. Talk herself through the steps
4. Learn the reasons why each step is important

Which one of the following statements best describes Vygotsky’s concept of internalization?
1. As children grow older, they develop an increasing ability to think about events in abstract rather than concrete terms.
2. With age, children acquire more sophisticated problem solving skills, largely because their parents and teachers give them increasingly more challenging problems to solve.
3. Over time, children acquire greater self-confidence about their ability to deal with the world.
4. Through their social interactions with other people, children acquire ways of mentally approaching and thinking about challenging tasks.

Students in a fourth-grade reading group are reading a passage about snakes. Their teacher asks, “Who can think of a good title that summarizes what this passage is about?” After hearing several good suggestions, the teacher says, “The author says that snakes are helpful to farmers. What evidence does she give to support her statement?” If we consider Vygotsky’s concept of internalization, we might predict that such a discussion will:
1. Be more beneficial for students who are working outside their zones of proximal development than for students working inside their ZPDs.
2. Help students develop a greater interest in learning for its own sake.
3. Help students develop effective reading comprehension strategies (e.g., summarizing, looking for supporting statements).
4. Be confusing and counterproductive for students who are not yet capable of abstract thought.

Xavier loves to write poetry. Often he uses techniques that his favorite poets use, but typically he modifies these techniques to better suit his own style. This situation illustrates which one of the following concepts in Vygotsky’s theory?
1. Appropriation
2. Mediated learning
3. Actual developmental level
4. Level of potential development

Which one of the following statements most accurately describes Vygotsky’s theory of cognitive development?
1. Children’s cognitive growth should be judged on the basis of their actual developmental level, not on the basis of their level of potential development.
2. Cognitive development progresses through four distinct stages; each stage is characterized by increasingly more complex thought and language.
3. Children progress, in part, by working on difficult tasks with the assistance of more competent individuals.
4. Language and thought, although closely intertwined in the first few years of life, become increasingly distinct entities.

Which one of the following students is definitely working in his or her zone of proximal development?
1. Arnold uses correct grammar and punctuation when he writes short stories.
2. Berta is beginning to learn basic woodworking techniques. She has trouble hammering a nail straight into a piece of wood unless her teacher stands beside her, helping her and reminding her of what to do.
3. Calvin is playing the clarinet in the band. He finds that it helps to keep the tempo if he taps the beat with his foot.
4. Doreen finds it virtually impossible to solve mathematical word problems, even when her teacher gives her helpful hints.

In Vygotsky’s view, opportunities to engage in pretend play (e.g., playing “house” or “doctor”) have which one of the following effects?
1. They are highly enjoyable but have little impact on cognitive development.
2. They can help children shed their preoperational egocentrism.
3. They foster traditional gender stereotypes.
4. They allow children to practice adult behaviors.

Which of the following pairs of concepts reflects the general idea that challenge is important for cognitive development?
1. Disequilibrium and ZPD
2. Self-talk and inner speech
3. Conservation and internalization
4. Working memory and central conceptual structure

Which one of the following issues reflects a fundamental difference between Piaget’s and Vygotsky’s theories of cognitive development?
1. Whether challenging tasks promote cognitive development
2. Whether social interactions are important for cognitive development
3. How much children require adult guidance to make cognitive gains
4. Whether preschoolers are cognitively ready to handle complex, adultlike tasks

If you were interested in how a child’s culture influences cognitive development, you would be most likely to consider _______ approach to cognitive development.
1. Piaget’s
2. Vygotsky’s
3. neo-Piagetian theorists’
4. information processing theorists’

In three of the following situations, interactions with peers might promote considerable learning. In which situation is an interaction with an adult (rather than with peers) more likely to be beneficial?
1. Learning how to use a microscope correctly
2. Contrasting different interpretations of a poem
3. Identifying the pros and cons of a democracy
4. Exploring various ways of solving a mathematical problem

If you were to criticize Vygotsky’s theory of cognitive development in a way that contemporary theorists sometimes do, which one of the following would you be most likely to say?
1. “It ignores the effects that formal education has on cognitive development.”
2. “It disregards the important roles that peers play in children’s development.”
3. “It’s a bit vague in its explanations of how development occurs.”
4. “It places heavy emphasis on drill and practice as factors promoting development.”

Which one of the following is the best example of a mediated learning experience?
1. O’Brien insists that students sit quietly at their desks before she dismisses them for lunch.
2. James reflects on the lesson he taught earlier in the day. “I suspect that most of my students still don’t understand the concepts I was trying to teach them,” he thinks.
3. Lucas asks his students to read Chapter 5 in their textbooks over the weekend. “You’ll find that the chapter is more challenging than previous ones,” he says.
4. As Ms. Robinson takes a group of children hiking, she gathers leaves from maple, oak, and elm trees and points out the ways in which the leaves from the trees are distinctly different.

Which one of the following scenarios best reflects the basic idea of social constructivism?
1. Two students discuss possible interpretations of the proverb “A stitch in time saves nine.”
2. A teacher assigns a laboratory activity using cumbersome equipment that students can only use successfully by working in pairs.
3. When a student borrows a classmate’s marker without asking and then forgets to put the cap back on, leaving it dried out and useless by the following morning, her teacher reminds her of one of the class rules: “Respect other students’ property.”
4. Four students in a study group divide the day’s reading assignment into four sections. Each student reads a section and then teaches the material to the other group members.

From a Vygotskian perspective, scaffolding serves what purpose in instruction?
1. It gives children an idea of what they need to do to get good grades.
2. It keeps school tasks within children’s actual developmental levels.
3. It lets children learn by watching one another.
4. It supports children as they perform difficult tasks.

Three of the following teachers are providing scaffolding to help their students learn. Which one is not necessarily providing scaffolding?
1. Applegate gives her students a structure to follow when they write their first essay.
2. Bernardo teaches students how to perform an overhand throw by gently guiding each student through the correct movement a few times.
3. Chen gives her class some hints about how to solve an especially difficult word problem.
4. Donaldson takes his students on an all-day field trip to the art museum.
Three of the following are definite examples of scaffolding. Identify the situation in which no scaffolding is described.
1. Ayotte likes to challenge her students by giving them group research projects. She puts her students in groups of three or four students each, and she gives each student a topic to research. She sends the groups to the school library to find out as much as they can about their topic, and then has each group give a report to the entire class.
2. Bender is teaching a unit on beginning tennis. In the early stages of teaching a correct tennis swing, he uses an automatic ball server that serves balls with consistent speed, height, and direction. He also continually reminds students to “Keep your eye on the ball” and “Hold your arm straight.” Later in the unit he begins to serve the balls himself, varying the speed, height, and direction of the serves. And he reminds students of what to do much less frequently.
3. Carrera helps students solve math word problems by providing visual illustrations of the elements of the problem and by showing them similar problems that have been worked out correctly. As the weeks go by, she provides fewer and fewer visual illustrations and fewer and fewer worked-out examples, until eventually the students can solve the problems without either form of assistance.
4. Donaldson’s students are just beginning to learn how to take notes in class. For the first few weeks Mr. D. begins class by handing out a detailed outline about the topic for the day. By December he is handing out an outline covering only the main points of the day, encouraging students to fill in the blank spaces on the sheet with ideas relative to each point. By May, students are writing down main points and relevant details on their own.

Three of the following are examples of Which of the following is not?
1. Modeling the correct way to perform a task
2. Asking thought provoking questions
3. Providing technological equipment to help with the task
4. Repeatedly stating that the task at hand is difficult

Several parents who are making costumes for an elementary school play ask the young cast members to assist them with such tasks as cutting fabric, pinning pieces together, and sewing simple hems. Using the language of Vygotskian theorists, we can say that the parents are:
1. Presenting tasks that exceed the students’ zone of proximal development
2. Encouraging the separation of thought and language
3. Engaging the students in guided participation (also know as legitimate peripheral participation)
4. Helping each student work at his or her actual developmental level

Three of the following are examples of communities of practice. Which of the following is not?
1. Graduate students studying molecular biology
2. Girls participating in a church youth group
3. Adult males waiting for a light to change at a street corner
4. Teachers working at an elementary school

Killian and her fourth graders have been growing sunflowers under various conditions—they have grown sunflowers in different kinds of soil, with different amounts of water, and in varying degrees of sunlight. Below are four statements that Ms. Killian makes related to the sunflowers. Which one is most consistent with the idea of a cognitive apprenticeship?
1. “Who can tell me what photosynthesis is?”
2. “How many of you have grown sunflowers at home? How many of you have moms or dads who are gardeners?”
3. “This sunflower is taller than that sunflower over there. Let’s consider what the growing conditions for the two flowers have been and try to figure out what might have led to the difference we see.”
4. “Elaine, please give each plant the same amount of water today that you gave it yesterday. Also, be sure that you keep each plant in the same location, so that the amount of sunlight it gets stays the same.”

Nine-year-old Ricky has recently learned how to solve long division problems, and he still struggles with especially difficult problems. At his mother’s request, he helps his 8-year-old sister Lucy with the simple long division problems she must do for her math homework. From the perspective of Vygotsky’s theory, which one of the following is most likely to result?
1. Ricky’s own long division skills will improve because he will internalize the instructions he gives Lucy.
2. Ricky will gain nothing from helping his sister because doing long division is outside his zone of proximal development.
3. Ricky’s own long division skills will decrease, because any mistakes that Lucy makes will “corrupt” his own mathematical thinking.
4. By helping Lucy with her long division problems, Ricky will be able to practice using the central conceptual structure that underlies his mathematical thinking.

Which one of the following is the best example of dynamic assessment?
1. Thiessen asks Macy to show him how to use a microscope properly.
2. Ursinas asks her students to work in 3-person groups to write a paper describing the effects of the U.S. invasion of Iraq in 2003.
3. Vincenti gives her students 20 multiple-choice questions; she then gives 20 additional, more difficult questions to students who’ve done very well on the first set, as a way of assessing the upper limits of their knowledge.
4. Warren observes and records how Erica’s logical thinking changes over time as she experiments with a pendulum.

Which one of the following statements best describes intersubjectivity?
1. Recognizing that one does not know, and ultimately never can know, everything there is to know about a topic
2. The point at which a teacher understands the nature of a child’s existing knowledge about a topic
3. The point at which a child acquires the same knowledge about a topic that a teacher or other expert has
4. A mutual understanding between two people that each one knows what the other one is seeing, thinking, or feeling

Mary takes care of several toddlers and preschoolers while their parents work during the day. One warm spring day, she has the children in a fenced-in area behind her home. A large dog comes running up to the fence. As the dog approaches, 2-year-old Todd looks at Mary. When he sees that she appears frightened, he immediately starts to cry. What phenomenon is Todd displaying in this situation?
1. Zone of proximal development
2. Social referencing
3. Accommodation
4. Assimilation

Which one of the following alternatives is the best example of a socially construction memory?
1. A father is reading a bedtime story to his young son. In the middle of the story, he stops reading and makes up a different ending to the story.
2. A teacher says, “Once upon a time, a young farmer …” and then asks a student to complete the sentence. The teacher asks another student to provide a second sentence that relates to the first, asks a third student to supply a third sentence, and so on, until a complete story emerges.
3. As they sip their milkshakes at a local diner, two friends recall and talk about various scenes from a scary movie they’ve just seen at the movie theater.
4. As a boy thinks about his childhood he remembers his best friend who moved away.

If you wanted to take a Vygotskian approach to teaching students a new study strategy, you would be most likely to:
1. Initially work collaboratively with students in applying the strategy, gradually withdrawing your support as they become more proficient in using it.
2. Explain how the human memory system works and relate the strategy to effective memory processes.
3. Show students how little they can remember when they use their current, ineffective strategies, thereby motivating them to learn the new strategy.
4. Wait until students are at least 11 or 12 years old and thus capable of abstract thought.

Researchers have found that when we human beings think about performing a particular physical skill (e.g., using scissors, dribbling a basketball), we activate some of the same brain regions that we use when actually executing that skill. Which one of the following concepts best reflects this research finding?
1. Guided participation
2. Intersubjectivity
3. Appropriation
4. Embodiment

Which one of the following situations best illustrates situated learning?
1. Twelve-year-old Andrew bakes often at home and can easily figure out how much flour he needs when he cuts in half a cookie recipe that calls for 2¹/₄ cups of flour. Yet Andrew has trouble making similar calculations in his math class.
2. Ten-year-old Bernita wonders what it would be like to live on a farm rather than in the city. As she sits in class, her mind often wanders to rural locations she has visited only in her dreams.
3. Sixteen-year-old Calvin has trouble understanding the process of mitosis when his biology teacher describes it in abstract terms. He still finds the concept difficult when, later, the teacher draws a diagram of the process on the chalkboard.
4. Four-year-old Danetta has trouble understanding that her friend Michael has moved to a community more than a thousand miles away. She keeps insisting that Michael must only be a short car ride away and throws a fit when her mother refuses to drive her to Michael’s house.

Which one of the following common expressions best reflects the idea of distributed cognition?
1. “A stitch in time saves nine.”
2. “Two heads are better than one.”
3. “Look before you leap.”
4. “A rolling stone gathers no moss.”

Which one of the following examples best illustrates the concept of distributed cognition?
1. Jacquie, Linda, and DeWayne discuss various ways they might solve a physics problem.
2. Mark and Jason each only complete half of their homework assignment.
3. Rhonda watches her favorite situation comedy while simultaneously eating an apple and doing her homework.
4. Reginald thinks about the various plots he might use in the short story he is writing and then eventually chooses one of them.

Which of the following most closely defines Uri Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems theory?
1. Children learn the concept of biological systems from experience
2. Adults actively manipulate children’s understanding of changing systems
3. Children learn about ecological systems from an early age have higher cognitive abilities
4. Humans develop by participating in separate, but interacting systems.

According to the Uri Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems theory, which of the following is an example of a child’s microsystem?
1. The country in which the child lives
2. The leader of the country in which the child lives
3. The relationship between the child and his or her parents
4. The relationship between the child’s parents and his or her school

After explaining what sines and cosines are, a high school math teacher shows students how they might use these concepts in constructing a large building. Which one of the following principles does this scenario best illustrate?
1. Over time, self-talk gradually evolves into inner speech.
2. Thought and language become increasingly interdependent with age.
3. Acquiring the cognitive tools of one’s culture enables youngsters to live and work more effectively.
4. Children function more effectively when they work at their actual (rather than potential) developmental levels.
Which one of the following is the best example of an authentic activity?
1. Listing four different kinds of sedimentary rocks
2. Designing a bridge using principles of physics
3. Putting definitions of new terms in your own words
4. Discussing reasons why World War II occurred

Villanueva has her students engage in a variety of activities in her middle school geography class. Three of the activities described below are authentic activities. Which one is not an authentic activity?
1. Constructing a map of the neighborhood around the school
2. Describing the difference between latitude and longitude
3. Finding the most direct route to Chicago on a road map
4. Using library resources to identify a good place to take a vacation

Which one of the following is the best example of problem-based learning?
1. Learning the logic behind certain problem-solving procedures in math
2. Learning history by reading detective novels set in certain historical eras
3. Devising a way to move a large, heavy object using principles of physics
4. Solving a series of mathematical word problems that gradually progress in difficulty

Which one of the following alternatives is the best example of service learning?
1. Struggling readers in a first-grade class spend three days a week with parent volunteers who provide one-on-one tutoring in basic reading skills.
2. A group of young boys develop a business in which they mow the lawns of their neighbors to make extra spending money.
3. Students in a fourth-grade class work in small cooperative groups to help one another make sense of challenging reading material.
4. Students in a biology class collect samples of local pond water, evaluate them for bacteria content, and report their findings to the city health department.

According to the textbook, which is the following is a cognitive benefit of video-games?
1. Video-games promote hand-eye coordination
2. Video-games increase response time
3. Video-games provide “real world” environments and decision opportunities
4. Video-games increase processing speed

Three of the following are benefits of peer interaction in the classroom. Which one is not a typical benefit of peer interaction?
1. Students can model effective ways of thinking for one another.
2. Peer-group discussions encourage students to organize their thoughts about a topic.
3. Peer-group discussions promote more rapid learning of classroom subject matter.
4. Students can develop more effective ways of defending conclusions they have reached.

Three of the following are possible reasons why classroom dialogues help students better understand classroom subject matter. Which one is not necessarily a benefit of classroom dialogues?
1. Students are exposed to the views of other people—views that may be more accurate than their own.
2. Students must clarify their ideas sufficiently to explain them to their classmates.
3. Students may discover flaws in their own ideas and thoughts about a topic.
4. Students are more likely to form visual images related to their ideas when they describe those ideas to others.

Three of the following are potential drawbacks to instructional techniques that depend heavily on student discussion. Which one is least likely to be a drawback?
1. Outgoing and popular students may dominate discussions, even if their ideas and suggestions are off-target.
2. Some students have trouble communicating their thoughts clearly enough for others to understand them.
3. Students who believe that there is a single “right” perspective on any issue are more likely to participate than students who realize that several perspectives may all have legitimacy.
4. Some students may become so focused on making a good impression when it’s their turn to speak that they don’t listen closely to what their classmates are saying.

Using the guidelines presented in the textbook regarding when classroom discussions are most valuable, choose the topic below that would be most appropriate for a classroom discussion.
1. Learning how gravity affects the speed with which an object falls
2. Studying the definitions of difficult words
3. Learning the various tenses of the verb to be
4. Interpreting Edgar Allan Poe’s poem The Raven

Three of the teachers below are using strategies consistent with the textbook’s recommendations for holding class discussions. Which teacher is using a strategy that is not consistent with the textbook’s recommendations?
1. Poston assures students that it’s okay if they change their minds about an issue.
2. Morris has students discuss a topic about which they know almost nothing.
3. Sheehan reminds students that they can criticize ideas but not people.
4. Retzlaff divides his class into groups of four students each to discuss a controversial issue.

Three of the following are strategies that good readers use to enhance their comprehension. Which one is not?
1. They ask themselves questions to make sure they understand.
2. They take steps to clarify possible sources of confusion.
3. They read through material relatively quickly.
4. They anticipate what is likely to come next in the passage.

Which one of the following teachers is using reciprocal teaching?
1. Armando has students work in pairs, testing each other’s knowledge about a topic.
2. Working with a small group, Mr. Bromley gives each student a chance to ask questions of other group members regarding a section of text they are reading.
3. When students ask questions about things they don’t understand, Ms. Cromwell asks if classmates can answer those questions before answering them herself.
4. Before a test, Ms. Dievers has each student describe the strategies he or she plans to use while studying.

Johansen, a sixth-grade teacher, wants to improve his students’ ability to learn effectively from what they read in their textbooks. Considering research results described in your Human Learning text, which technique should Mr. Johansen use?
1. Reciprocal teaching
2. Community of learners
3. Cooperative learning
4. Class discussion

Which one of the following best illustrates the use of base groups in cooperative learning?
1. Students in a third-grade class are divided into several different reading groups based on their current reading levels.
2. Students in a social studies class work in groups of three or four to conduct in-depth research projects in their local, inner-city neighborhood.
3. Students in a literature class select one of four Shakespearian plays to read; students reading the same play convene for several half-hour discussions of the play.
4. Students in a history class spend the last five minutes of each class session in small, semester-long groups in which they can compare class notes and help one another with sources of confusion.

Three of the following are potential disadvantages of a cooperative learning activity. Which one has not been identified as a disadvantage?
1. Students generally have lower self-efficacy when they study with peers rather than alone.
2. Students may learn incorrect information from other group members.
3. Students who do more work may harbor negative feelings about students who do less work.
4. Students may be more interested in completing the task quickly than in helping one another learn.

Three of the following are typical elements of effective cooperative learning sessions. Which one is not typical of such sessions?
1. To succeed, group members must depend on one another.
2. Groups consist of several students of similar ability.
3. Group members must individually demonstrate what they have learned.
4. Groups work toward clear, concrete goals.

Which one of the following cooperative groups is using the jigsaw technique?
1. When attempting to solve several challenging mathematics problems, group members brainstorm various approaches to solving each one.
2. As it prepares for a debate about capital punishment, a cooperative group decides which member will present each argument for the group’s position.
3. When studying types of mountains (volcanic, dome, fold, and block), each student studies one type and teaches what he or she has learned to other group members.
4. After everyone has read Shakespeare’s Julius Caesar, group members divide up the scenes of the play, and each student skims through his or her scenes for examples of symbolism.

Which one of the following examples best shows one or more students using a procedure known as scripted cooperation while studying?
1. Danny and Emma are second graders who are working on their reading comprehension. Their teacher gives them a structured activity to do together to uncover the storyline of a new book.
2. Ben and Will read their favorite story together. Ben reads the first half aloud and Will reads the second half aloud.
3. A group of drama students read through the script of the play they are set to perform later that year.
4. Elliot and Henry work on their math homework together by each completing every other problem.

Which one of the following examples best shows one or more students using a procedure known as guided peer questioning (also known as elaborative interrogation) while studying?
1. As LaWanda and Megan study their history book together, they take turns making up and asking each other questions about why various historical events may have happened the way they did.
2. As she reads a classmate’s short story, Suzette develops a list of questions that she would ask the author about why he wrote the story the way he did.
3. Vance and Cindy make notations in their class notes regarding things they don’t understand and need to ask their teacher about.
4. As Lynette, Martin, and Fred study for a science quiz one evening, they go over the questions on the study guide their teacher handed out in class that day; they know that if they can answer all the questions successfully, they will do well on the quiz.

Which one of the following teachers is using the recommended approach to evaluate students’ achievement in a cooperative learning situation?
1. Au has students take notes on what they are learning throughout a cooperative learning session.
2. Baer’s cooperative groups turn in a research paper co-authored by all group members.
3. Craighead’s cooperative groups each elect a group “captain,” who explains to Mr. Craighead what his or her group has learned.
4. Donaldson gives students a quiz over the material that groups have studied; students get extra credit if everyone in their group scores high.

Three of the following are consistent with the textbook’s recommendations for using peer tutoring. Which one is inconsistent with the textbook’s recommendations?
1. Peer tutoring can be used effectively to help students diagnosed as having learning disabilities.
2. Tutors function most effectively when left to teach in ways that they develop on their own.
3. Peer tutoring can be especially effective when the tutor is given structured activity to follow.
4. Tutors are typically most effective when they themselves have mastered the subject matter they are teaching.

A community of learners can best be described as:
1. A classroom in which a cooperative spirit of helping one another learn prevails.
2. A small group of students that chooses a special topic it wants to pursue independently.
3. A classroom in which most activities are relatively structured discovery-learning activities.
4. A classroom in which most activities involve whole-class discussions and reciprocal teaching.

Communities of learners often create conceptual artifacts as they study a topic. Which one of the following is the best example of such an artifact?
1. Students jointly write a one-act play based on a short story they’ve been reading.
2. Students write their own, individual summaries of what they think the class has accomplished each week.
3. Students jointly create a board game that puts the economic principle of supply-and-demand into action.
4. Students jointly create a diagram that helps them understand the water cycle. They occasionally revise it as they learn more about evaporation and condensation.

Three of the following are likely to enhance the effectiveness of a community of learners. Which one is least likely to be helpful?
1. Students all try to master the same topic.
2. Students focus on significant real-world problems.
3. Students are taught how to present a persuasive argument.
4. Students all have unique talents they can contribute to the overall class effort.

Which one of the following best reflects technology-based collaborative learning as the textbook describes it?
1. Two or more members of a class regularly meet on Internet chat rooms to study for tests and quizzes.
2. High school students create a Facebook group; they then recruit peers from diverse locations to join the group and exchange ideas about how best to deal with typical teenage issues.
3. Students post their work on a shared database, give one another feedback, and build on one another’s ideas.
4. Two classes in distant locations use video technology to learn about one another’s cultures.

According to the textbook, technology based collaborative learning programs are helpful to learners because the provide which of the following?
1. A community of learners
2. Developmental aids
3. Explanations of difficult concepts
4. Sample test questions

According to the textbook technology based collaborative learning programs have many benefits. Which of the following is least likely to a benefit?
1. Students can gain multiple perspective to a problem
2. Students can gain a greater understanding of other students around the world
3. Students often focus on understating the material, rather than completing the assignment
4. Students want to talk about that they have learned with their friends and family, which gives them more experience with the topic

Essay Questions

Vygotsky and contemporary Vygotskian theorists have proposed that children’s and adolescents’ cognitive development is promoted when they work within their zone of proximal development and that scaffolding enables them to do this successfully.
1. Explain the two concepts in italics, and give a concrete example of each one.
2. Choose a topic or skill you might teach someone else, and explain how you would: (1) scaffold the learner’s efforts, and (2) modify the scaffolding over time.

Use concepts from Vygotsky’s perspective of cognitive development to describe how you learned about Vygotsky’s theory in this class. Your response should include references to at least three of the following concepts: zone of proximal development, self-talk, inner speech, internalization, and scaffolding.

Describe a cognitive apprenticeship, and identify at least five features that effective cognitive apprenticeships are likely to have. Use a concrete example to illustrate your discussion.

Identify an instructional objective that might be achieved through an authentic activity. Then, in one or two paragraphs, describe the nature of the authentic activity.

In recent years whole-class and small-group student discussions have become increasingly popular as methods of helping students master classroom subject matter. Identify at least five different ways in which peer-interactive approaches can enhance students’ learning.

Describe reciprocal teaching and its effects on student achievement. Explain its effectiveness using principles of learning from cognitive psychology, being sure to address metacognition in your discussion.

Pick a topic that you might effectively teach through a cooperative learning approach. Then, using guidelines presented in the textbook, describe how you will:
1. Form your cooperative groups
2. Foster interdependence of group members
3. Assess what students have learned

Identify a particular instructional objective that students might be able to achieve through one of the following approaches to instruction:

- Class discussion
- Reciprocal teaching
- Cooperative learning
- Peer tutoring
- A community of learners

In three or four paragraphs, explain in specific terms what the instructional unit would involve. Be sure that your discussion incorporates guidelines presented in the textbook regarding the instructional method you’ve chosen.

CHAPTER 12

METACOGNITION, SELF-REGULATED LEARNING,

AND STUDY STRATEGIES

Multiple Choice Questions

Many children lack metacognitive knowledge. This is most directly reflected in the fact that they:
1. Tend to be easily distracted from schoolwork
2. Have difficulty with such mathematical concepts as proportions and negative numbers
3. Don’t know very much about how they can best learn something
4. Don’t do very well on intelligence test items requiring abstract thought

In which one of the following examples is metacognition most clearly illustrated?
1. Mary knows all the letters of the alphabet before she begins kindergarten.
2. Fran knows how much of a book she is likely to remember a month later.
3. Billy can read fourth-grade-level books when he’s only 6 years old.
4. Ewan has a photographic memory that enables him to remember everything he sees.

Donald is studying for an upcoming exam. He does a number of things to prepare for the exam, four of which are listed below. Three of these illustrate metacognition. Which one reflects very little metacognitive activity?
1. He allows himself adequate study time for the exam.
2. He focuses his eyes on the first page of his textbook.
3. He identifies a suitable mnemonic technique that will help him remember a difficult piece of information.
4. He periodically tests himself to see if he is sufficiently prepared for the exam.

The textbook describes many differences between good readers and poor readers—that is, between people who do and do not learn effectively from the things they read. Which one of the following is not an accurate statement about their differences?
1. Good readers read more quickly than poor readers; for example, many good readers are skilled speed readers.
2. Good readers are more likely to formulate questions that they then try to answer as they read.
3. Good readers focus their attention on what is most important to learn; poor readers are less discriminating.
4. As they read, good readers are more likely to embellish on what they read through inference-drawing and other forms of elaboration.

Three of the following students are using metacognitive strategies while reading. Which one is not necessarily using a metacognitive strategy?
1. Darnell always thinks about what he wants to learn from a textbook before he begins to read it.
2. Josie likes to guess what an author will say before she starts reading; she continues to revise her guesses as she goes along.
3. Pablo prefers to read out loud so he can hear what the words sound like.
4. Keiko ignores parts of the text that don’t relate to her purpose for reading.

Three of the following students are using metacognitive strategies while using the Internet. Which one is not necessarily using a metacognitive strategy?
1. Aiden chooses appropriate key words to search for new concepts.
2. Billy actively evaluates the misinformation he is receiving from certain websites.
3. Carole often changes her search criteria as she learns new information.
4. Doug has multiple websites active at one time.

Three of the following are characteristics of self-regulated learning. Which one is not necessarily a characteristic associated with self-regulated learning?
1. Trying to focus one’s attention on the task at hand
2. Figuring out how best to use the time one has to accomplish a particular learning task
3. Wanting to learn something even though there is no external reward for learning it
4. Working hard to achieve the instructional objectives the teacher has described

Three of the following students are showing signs of self-regulated learning. Which student does not show any evidence of self-regulated learning?
1. Adam beams with pleasure when his teacher praises his English essay, because her opinion of his work is very important to him.
2. Blake knows that, for purposes of college admission, his performance in math class is more important than his performance in his drama class, so he works harder in the first class than in the second.
3. As Craig studies his German vocabulary words, he occasionally stops to check himself to see which words he needs to study further.
4. Drew thinks to himself, “Tonight I’ll skim the reading assignment in history just to get a general idea of what the chapter’s all about. Tomorrow I’ll read it again in more depth.”

On the average, self-regulated learners tend to:
1. Perform better on a continuous reinforcement schedule than on an intermittent reinforcement schedule
2. Require more of a teacher’s time and attention than do other students, but this time and attention is a good investment over the long run
3. Be less interested in extracurricular activities than their classmates
4. Achieve at higher levels in the classroom

Which one of the following is the closest approximation to co-regulated learning?
1. Kieran takes detailed notes during a lecture in his class.
2. When studying for a quiz, Malika tries to answer the questions on the study guide her teacher has provided.
3. Suki is studying for a history test. She knows she has trouble with dates, so she checks herself by giving herself a short quiz after each chapter.
4. Norm is preparing to take the SAT test important for admission to many colleges, so he gets an SAT preparation book from the local library and reads it from cover to cover.

With research on effective study skills in mind, identify the strategy that you should recommend to a high school student who really wants to do well in her classes but who consistently has trouble learning and remembering classroom subject matter.
1. Try to organize information.
2. Focus on details.
3. Underline at least two sentences in every paragraph.
4. Try to learn information word for word.

Maps, matrixes, and historical time lines all help students learn by facilitating:
1. Use of mnemonics
2. Rote learning
3. Organization
4. Self-regulated learning

Concept maps, whether constructed by students or teachers, have several advantages. Which one of the following is not necessarily an advantage of concept maps?
1. They help students learn classroom material more meaningfully.
2. They help teachers identify misconceptions that students may have about the material.
3. They provide a means through which students can visually as well as verbally encode relationships among ideas.
4. They encourage cooperative learning because they can be constructed only when two or more students work together.

Which one of the following students is not using a study strategy that will promote long-term storage processes?
1. While his math teacher demonstrates a mathematical procedure on the chalkboard, Ed writes “Meet Pat after school” in the margin of his notebook.
2. Jason creates an outline of all of the concepts he will need to know for his upcoming science exam.
3. Hugh creates a flow chart to help him study for his math exam.
4. Frank elaborates on what he learned in culinary class by going home and experimenting with new recipes.

Given research on effective study skills, which one of the following techniques should you not recommend to a struggling student?
1. Take notes on a lecture only after it’s over.
2. Draw inferences from the information presented.
3. Look for main ideas in a lecture.
4. Summarize the information presented in a textbook chapter.

Note taking has a number of beneficial effects on learning and retention of information. Which one of the following is not an effect of note taking?
1. It promotes verbal encoding of the material being heard or read.
2. It promotes visual encoding of the material being heard or read.
3. It provides retrieval cues for later recall of information.
4. It decreases the degree to which elaboration is necessary.
Three of the following teachers should enhance the quality of notes that students take. Which teacher is unlikely to do so?
1. Aguilar encourages students to reorganize and elaborate on their notes when they get home from school.
2. Bakewell asks students to hold their questions until the end of class.
3. Carlson writes important points on the chalkboard.
4. At the beginning of class, Ms. Drew gives students an outline of the topics for the day.

One valuable study skill is the ability to distinguish between important and unimportant information in the material being studied. Three of the following statements are reasons that students at all levels often have trouble identifying important information. Which one is not a valid explanation of why students have such trouble?
1. Students may have insufficient prior knowledge with which to make educated decisions about what is important.
2. The very nature of the reading process is such that students inevitably give equal attention to every piece of information that is on the page.
3. A textbook may give few if any signals about what things are most important to learn and remember.
4. Students often use relatively superficial characteristics of the material (e.g., words in boldface print) as an indicator of what’s important.

When students summarize material they are studying, they learn it more thoroughly. Which one of these students is most effectively summarizing?
1. Jerry writes down the important ideas and identifies relationships among them.
2. Laura writes down everything she can remember from the lesson.
3. Nora writes each main point on a separate index card and then jots down all the details she can remember about each one.
4. Phyllis lists the general themes of a lesson in five or six words.

Theorists have offered a number of suggestions regarding how teachers might help students develop better summaries of classroom subject matter. Which one of the strategies below do they not recommend?
1. Have students identify the most important ideas and then find information that supports each idea.
2. Have students look for and delete ideas that seem relatively trivial.
3. Begin by having students read exceptionally difficult texts, so that they acquire an appreciation for the value of summarizing.
4. Have students compare their summaries with one another and discuss their reasons for choosing some ideas as being more important than others.

Three of the following are examples of comprehension monitoring. Which one is not?
1. Annette looks at all the headings and subheadings in a chapter before she begins to read the chapter itself.
2. Bruce asks himself questions about the material he is reading and tries to answer them.
3. Cara stops at the end of each section to see if she can summarize what she’s just read.
4. After reading a chapter in a textbook, Dwayne makes sure he has accomplished the objectives presented on the chapter’s first page.

A student who has an illusion of knowing is likely to:
1. Know the general meaning of material but not be able to repeat it verbatim
2. Elaborate on hard-to-remember material
3. Undergo conceptual change
4. Express surprise about a low exam score

As a teacher, you are concerned that many of your students are learning less than they think they’re learning as they read their textbooks. Your best strategy would be to:
1. Have them underline or highlight at least 50% of what they read
2. Instruct them to read the book two or three times instead of only once
3. Suggest questions that they can ask themselves as they read
4. Copy difficult-to-understand sentences in their notebooks

When students are reading a textbook, their comprehension monitoring is most effective if it occurs:
1. Before they read a passage
2. Immediately after they’ve read a passage
3. Several minutes or hours after they’ve read a passage
4. Both immediately after they’ve read a passage and also at some later time

Three of the following are examples of mnemonics. Which one is not a mnemonic?
1. To learn the letters identifying the spaces on the treble clef (F A C E), Annabelle simply remembers the word face.
2. To learn how to drive a car with a standard transmission, Bart practices the various parts of the task (e.g., steering, shifting, and braking) separately.
3. To learn that the Spanish word pájaro means “bird,” Corey pictures a bird wearing pajamas.
4. To learn that the Spanish word navidad means “Christmas,” Dorene thinks of the word nativity.
To remember that the capital of Maine is Augusta, Bart pictures a lion with a gust of wind blowing through its mane. Bart’s technique illustrates:
1. the keyword method
2. verbal mediation
3. the method of loci
4. an external retrieval cue

To remember the four states that come together at a single point (Colorado, Arizona, New Mexico, and Utah), Marcia remembers “CANU” (pronounced like “canoe”). Marcia’s technique illustrates the use of:
1. the keyword method
2. a superimposed meaningful structure
3. the method of loci
4. the pegword method

Melissa has an ingenious method for remembering the member countries of the NATO alliance. Using words that rhyme with the numbers 1, 2, 3, and so on, she forms a visual image of each country interacting with a word that rhymes with a number. For example, she pictures a huge bun (which rhymes with “1”) sitting on top of Big Ben (Great Britain), a shoe (a rhyme for “2”) with a tiny Canadian Mountie (Canada) perched on its toe, a tree (a rhyme for “3”) with numerous Statues of Liberty (United States) growing from its branches, and so on. Melissa’s technique illustrates the use of:
1. verbal mediation
2. an external retrieval cue
3. the pegword method
4. the method of loci

Norman is studying Chinese and needs to remember that the word for “exit” is chu, so he remembers the sentence The choo-choo train is exiting from the station. Norman’s technique illustrates the use of:
1. an external retrieval cue
2. the keyword method
3. the pegword method
4. verbal mediation

Mnemonics probably facilitate memory in a number of ways. Which one of the following is not a potential advantage of mnemonics?
1. They relate new information to what a person already knows.
2. They expand the capacity of working memory.
3. They help organize information.
4. They provide retrieval cues.
Of the many learning and study strategies students might use, covert strategies are ultimately more beneficial than overt strategies. Which one of the following is a covert strategy?
1. Elaboration
2. Note taking
3. Outlining
4. Writing a summary

Which one of the following definitely illustrates theory of mind in a preschooler?
1. Casey asks his friend Julia, “Did you forget what I told you yesterday?”
2. Although he cannot yet read, Manuel enjoys looking at picture books.
3. Liza frowns and complains to her mother, “My head hurts really bad!”
4. Toula tells her playmate Joey all about her camping trip over the weekend.

As children develop, their metacognitive knowledge changes in a number of ways. Which one of the following is a false statement about how metacognition changes with development?
1. Children sometimes use effective strategies unconsciously before they begin to use them consciously and intentionally.
2. Older children engage in more comprehension monitoring than younger children.
3. Younger children are more aware of their own thought processes than older children are.
4. Children become increasingly adept at using rehearsal to remember something.

Considering trends in metacognitive development, only one of the following statements is accurate. Which one?
1. Learners of all ages generally know the things they know and the things they don’t.
2. Elementary students have a better sense of what they do and don’t know than high school students do.
3. Students tend to know a great many things that they don’t realize they know.
4. Students across the K-12 grade span often think they know things that they really don’t

Learners’ epistemic beliefs can best be described as learners’ views about:
1. What instructional techniques are most likely to help them learn classroom material
2. How researchers develop theories from the data they collect
3. How long they are likely to remember the things that they learn in school
4. The nature of knowledge and how it is acquired

Three of the following are beliefs of Which of the following is not a relevant belief to the study of epistemology?
1. The source of knowledge
2. The nature of learning ability
3. The speed of learning
4. The capacity of memory

Which one of the following pairs of students best illustrates a difference with respect to students’ epistemic beliefs?
1. Irene thinks that doing well in high school is important for getting into a good college, but Isabelle thinks that she can get into college with mediocre grades as long as she has high SAT scores.
2. Julie likes going to school because that’s where she sees her friends every day, but Janette likes going to school because of all the new things she learns there.
3. Keith thinks that learning chemistry is a process of memorizing symbols and formulas, but Kareem thinks that chemistry involves trying to understand the nature of elements and compounds.
4. Loren is well aware of the criteria his teacher is using to evaluate his classroom performance, but Luke is clueless about why he’s doing poorly in the same teacher’s class.

Three of the following examples are consistent with how epistemic beliefs typically change as learners grow older. Which one is not consistent with typical developmental trends in epistemic beliefs?
1. Anna used to think that studying history involved memorizing facts—names, dates, places, etc. She now believes that studying history involves learning interrelationships among historical events—how one event led to another, and so on.
2. Beatrice used to think that scientists might have different but possibly equally valid views of how the world operates. She now believes that there is probably only one correct explanation—one that scientists will eventually determine.
3. Charmaine used to think that if she was going to learn a particular mathematical concept, she would learn it either quickly or not at all. She now believes that her understanding of particularly difficult math concepts may evolve slowly over time and require considerable effort on her part.
4. Delores used to think that people were naturally either “good at” or “not good at” learning a foreign language. She now believes that successful learning results more from persistence and hard work.

Jenny is three years old. Which of the following beliefs about epistemology is she most likely to hold?
1. Authoritative; information she learns only comes from authority figures
2. Realist; information she gains from other people is truth
3. Absolutist; information she hears is either true of false
4. Multiplist; conflicting information she learns from different people can all be true

Three of the following statements accurately describe environmental influences on the development of epistemic beliefs. Which statement is not accurate?
1. As students observe experts disagreeing about a particular topic, they increasingly realize that even authority figures aren’t always reliable sources of what is true and accurate.
2. The extent to which students accept what authority figures tell them is partly a function of the culture in which they have grown up.
3. Classroom demands for word-for-word memorization increase as students move through the secondary grades and post-secondary education.
4. Students who have grown up in Asian cultures are apt to believe that knowledge is the result of hard work, whereas students who have grown up in the United States are apt to believe that knowledge should come quickly and easily.

Three of the following are accurate statements about how students’ epistemic beliefs influence their approach to studying and learning. Which statement is not accurate?
1. Students who believe that knowledge consists of a collection of discrete facts, rather than an interrelated set of ideas, are likely to engage in rote learning of classroom material.
2. Students who believe that learning is a gradual process are more likely to use a variety of learning strategies and to persist in their learning efforts until they have mastered what they are studying.
3. Students who believe that knowledge is a certain entity—that facts and ideas are definitely either right or wrong—are more like likely to jump to quick conclusions from the things they hear and read.
4. Students who believe that knowledge is something that comes from authority figures, rather than being constructed by the learner, are more likely to be actively, cognitively engaged in their learning tasks.

Three of the following statements are accurate with regard to students’ and/or teachers’ epistemic beliefs. Which statement is not accurate?
1. Students’ criteria for determining the truth or validity of an idea influence the extent to which they engage in critical thinking.
2. Students are more likely to develop sophisticated epistemic beliefs when they have an opportunity to study a particular subject matter at an advanced level.
3. Students who believe that knowledge is fixed and simple tend to achieve at higher levels in the classroom.
4. Teachers who believe that learning involves primarily memorization and rehearsal are more likely to focus on lower-level skills in their assignments and assessment practices.

Intentional learning, as described in the textbook, would be most important for which one of the following learning tasks?
1. Revising previously inaccurate understandings of scientific phenomena
2. Learning how to spell words that violate common English letter-sound relationships (e.g., the term hors d’oeuvre)
3. Learning that performance on classroom tests is usually better if one studies a little bit every night rather than cramming at the last minute
4. Learning how to ask grammatically correct questions in the English language

Three of the following are possible reasons that many students don’t use effective learning and study strategies. Which one is not a reason that theorists have offered?
1. Students believe they won’t learn no matter what they do.
2. Students think strategies involve too much time and trouble.
3. Students have insufficient knowledge about a topic to use such strategies effectively.
4. For some students, things learned at a rote level stay with them longer than things learned meaningfully.

Can study skills be improved through instruction? Research indicates that:
1. It is primarily high-ability students who benefit from study skills training.
2. Effective study skills do not emerge before formal operations, regardless of instruction.
3. Study skills training programs are effective even with students in the elementary grades.
4. Only college students truly benefit from study skills training.

Imagine that you are a school district superintendent who wants students to develop effective study strategies before they graduate. With research about effective study skills programs in mind, which one of the following approaches would be the best one to take?
1. Purchase textbooks that are about two years below students’ present reading level.
2. Have teachers incorporate study skills training into the specific academic courses they teach.
3. Have a one-semester study skills course that all students take in middle school or junior high.
4. Have a one-semester study skills course that all students take in their first or second year of high school.

Research indicates that study skills training is most likely to be effective when:
1. Students focus on learning one specific study strategy.
2. Students focus on learning facts rather than on developing higher-level thinking skills.
3. Students have little or no background in the topic they are studying.
4. Students are given reasons why certain study techniques are helpful.

Which one of the following best illustrates the concept of epistemic doubt?
1. After reading two competing explanations of color vision, Stuart is beginning to wonder if science is as cut-and-dried as he has previously thought.
2. Mary’s teacher says that the earth revolves around the sun. Mary thinks, “How can that be? I see the sun go across the sky each day. Obviously, the sun goes around the earth, not vice versa.”
3. After listening to other students in her study group debate possible interpretations of a dialogue in Hamlet, Isilene wonders which of them is right.
4. Randall doesn’t think he has the ability to understand nuclear physics.

Essay Questions

Some students learn a great deal from the things they read; others seem to learn very little. Describe at least five strategies good readers use when they read—strategies that poor readers tend not to use. Using concepts and principles from cognitive psychology, explain why each strategy promotes learning.

The textbook identifies several elements of self-regulated learning. Describe at least five characteristics that self-regulated learners are likely to have.

You are hired to teach a struggling student more effective study skills. Drawing from research findings regarding effective study strategies, identify five strategies that you think would be beneficial for the student to develop. Then, in five short paragraphs, describe the approaches that you might use to help the student acquire each of the strategies you’ve identified.

Linda approaches you before class and expresses her frustration about having done so poorly on yesterday’s exam. “I studied for hours and hours,” she tells you. “I guess I’m just not a very good test-taker.” You know that your test was a good measure of what you taught your students. You also know that students seldom do poorly on your tests simply because they are poor test takers. Considering the textbook’s discussion of study strategies, what other possible explanation might you give Linda as to why she thought she knew the material well yet earned a low test score. And with your explanation in mind, describe two strategies you might teach Linda to help her improve her performance next time.

The German word for “rabbit” is Kaninchen. Develop two different mnemonics for remembering this vocabulary word, one using each of these two techniques:
1. Verbal mediation
2. The keyword method

The eight planets of the solar system, in order of their distance from the sun, are Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune. (Pluto has recently been demoted to the status of dwarf planet.) Develop two different mnemonics for remembering this list, one using each of these two techniques:
1. The pegword method
2. A superimposed meaningful structure

Explain how learners’ epistemic beliefs may vary in terms of each of the following:

The certainty of knowledge
The simplicity and structure of knowledge
The source of knowledge
The criteria for determining truth
The speed of learning
The nature of learning ability

Explain, too, how learners’ beliefs regarding each of these things are likely to influence their approaches to specific learning tasks.

John is a high school sophomore who has just taken a course in effective study strategies. Yet John continues to use rote memorization (e.g., rehearsal) as the primary way that he studies class material. Drawing from the textbook’s discussion of metacognition and study strategies, describe at least four reasons why John isn’t using his newly learned strategies, even though these strategies should ultimately help him learn more effectively over the long run.

CHAPTER 13

TRANSFER, PROBLEM SOLVING, AND CRITICAL THINKING

Multiple Choice Questions

Which one of the following is the best example of inert knowledge?
1. Kate is surprised to learn that Winston Churchill, Great Britain’s prime minister during World War II, lost his battle for reelection in 1945.
2. Wally knows how to multiply and divide fractions but doesn’t realize he can use this knowledge when he needs to adjust measurements in a cake recipe.
3. In his everyday speech, Quincy correctly uses irregular verbs (e.g., go, went, have gone), but he can’t explain the difference between regular and irregular verbs.
4. After breaking her leg, Paisley is unable to play basketball for several months.

Which one of the following illustrates positive transfer?
1. Robert is trying to learn the spelling of the word shepherd. He remembers that he learned to spell tomcat by putting two words together and so writes “sheepherd.”
2. Vince notices that rules of grammar are not always the same in English and Japanese.
3. Zelda uses the formula for calculating the area of a circle when she wants to know how much bigger a 10-inch pizza is than a 7-inch pizza.
4. David is trying to learn to program a computer. He reads his programming manual but is confused by some of its instructions.

Which one of the following is the best example of negative transfer?
1. Nell thinks that 5.75 is bigger than 5.9, because the former has more digits.
2. Fred knows he can get Bs in his classes without having to study at all.
3. José can’t remember when the American Civil War started, so he recalls all he can about American history and concludes that the war must have taken place in the 1860s.
4. Edie wants to tie a string securely to her pencil so that she can hang it from her notebook, but she has forgotten how to tie a square knot.

Nathan has been playing golf with his parents for many years. When he goes out for the school baseball team, he has trouble hitting the ball because he keeps confusing the swing of the bat with how he swings a golf club. Nathan’s difficulty is the result of:
1. Vertical transfer
2. Mental set in problem solving
3. Rote learning
4. Negative transfer

Which one of the following most clearly illustrates vertical (as opposed to lateral) transfer?
1. The skill Arnold has developed as a marathon runner helps him later in life when he jogs for exercise.
2. Brian has learned study skills in his history class that he also finds useful in his English literature class.
3. Conway’s knowledge of addition and subtraction helps him learn accounting procedures.
4. David’s knowledge of the human digestive system helps him understand the digestive system of an earthworm.

Imagine that you learn a formula for calculating the volume of a cylinder. You practice using the formula by working on problems such as this one: How much water could you hold in a glass that is 10 cm. in diameter and 15 cm. tall? Later, on a quiz, you are given the following four problems that can be solved using the same formula. Which one of them most obviously requires far (rather than near) transfer?
1. A frozen food company wants to know how much frozen orange juice it can put in a can that is 7 cm. in diameter and 12 cm. long.
2. A dairy farmer wants to know how much milk he can store in a metal drum that is 1 meter in diameter and 3 meters in height.
3. A manufacturer of office supplies wants to know how many thumbtacks it can put in a round plastic container that is four inches across and one inch high. It estimates that one cubic inch can hold about 10 tacks.
4. A maple syrup distributor in Vermont wants to know how much syrup it can put in a bottle that is 20 cm. tall and 6 cm. in diameter.

Which one of the following most clearly illustrates general (as opposed to specific) transfer?
1. The skill Arnold has developed as a marathon runner helps him later in life when he jogs for exercise.
2. Brian has learned study skills in his history class that he also finds useful in his English literature class.
3. Conway’s knowledge of addition and subtraction helps him learn accounting procedures.
4. David’s knowledge of the human digestive system helps him understand the digestive system of an earthworm.

Weston is working on a science project and wants to make his papier-mâché volcano “erupt.” He remembers that when his mother combined vinegar and baking soda while following a recipe, the batter foamed up as she added the vinegar. So he tries mixing vinegar and baking soda in his volcano, and the mixture bubbles. Weston is showing:
1. General transfer
2. Intuitive transfer
3. Negative transfer
4. Specific transfer

Mary is majoring in drama. Mary’s parents want her to study advanced mathematics as a way of strengthening her mind, and argue that, when she is in a play, she will be able to learn her lines more easily. Based on their reasoning, which one of the following theories of transfer do Mary’s parents believe?
1. Formal discipline
2. Behaviorism
3. Information processing theory
4. Situated learning

Mary’s parents want her to study advanced mathematics as a way of helping her remember her lines in theater productions. Considering research on transfer, are Mary’s parents correct? Will studying advanced mathematics help Mary learn her lines more readily?
1. Probably
2. Only if Mary studies mathematics for an extended period of time
3. Only if Mary studies abstract concepts
4. Probably not

According to Thorndike’s theory of identical elements, in which one of the following situations are we most likely to find positive transfer?
1. Alice learns how to plant corn and then learns how to prune a hedge.
2. Brianne learns how to add 2-digit numbers and then learns how to add 3-digit numbers.
3. Cathy learns early British history and then learns early Japanese history.
4. Devlin learns how to play softball and then learns how to play poker.

Francis learns that the Spanish word malo means “bad.” He later learns that the French word mal also means “bad.” Analyzing this situation in terms of the similarity of stimuli and responses, we can predict that Francis will:
1. Probably have positive transfer from one language to the other
2. Probably have negative transfer from one language to the other
3. Have positive transfer from Spanish to French, but negative transfer from French to Spanish
4. Have positive transfer from French to Spanish, but negative transfer from Spanish to French

In English, the word llama is pronounced “LA-MA.” In Spanish, llama is more typically pronounced as “YA-MA” or “JA-MA,” depending on the dialect. Analyzing this situation in terms of the similarity of stimuli and responses, we can predict that a person who first learns to read the word in English and then learns to read it in Spanish will:
1. Benefit from positive transfer
2. Suffer from negative transfer
3. Have little or no transfer from one language to the other
4. Benefit from positive transfer only if the two languages are learned close together in time

Leo has recently studied the principle of reinforcement in his psychology class. He is now trying to teach his daughter good table manners. From an information processing perspective of transfer, is Leo likely to use the principle of reinforcement in helping his daughter learn manners?
1. Definitely yes
2. Definitely no
3. Only if he retrieves the principle of reinforcement at the time he is teaching his daughter
4. Only if he has previously learned the principle of reinforcement to a level of automaticity

Which one of the following examples best illustrates the notion of situated learning as it relates to transfer?
1. When Rachel learns the concept inertia, she immediately recalls a variety of real-world phenomena that the concept can account for.
2. Lucinda doesn’t enjoy her history class because her teacher expects students to memorize a lot of names, dates, and places.
3. Eleanor enjoys physical education class because she always feels more energized afterward.
4. It doesn’t occur to Jennie that she can use algebra to solve a problem in her chemistry class.

Which one of the following teachers is clearly keeping the notion of situated learning in mind as he or she helps students transfer what they are learning in school?
1. Sporer asks her students to speculate about what might have happened if the Europeans had not “discovered” the New World until the 1800s.
2. Mendoza makes sure that each one of the students in his instrumental music class knows the difference between the treble and bass clefs.
3. Sabih gives each of her elementary art students a hunk of clay and then says, “I’d like you to mold your clay into a mythical creature of some kind—into an animal that no one has ever seen before.”
4. Gerberg takes his middle school math students to the grocery store so that they can use their math skills to do some comparison shopping.

Considering contemporary theorists’ views on general transfer, which one of the following skills is most likely to transfer across very different situations?
1. The ability to take good notes on a lecture
2. The ability to remember complex ideas
3. The ability to memorize a poem
4. The ability to solve challenging problems

Which one of the following pieces of advice is most consistent with current beliefs about transfer?
1. “Take calculus to help you develop your critical thinking skills.”
2. “Study German so that you’ll have an easier time learning Japanese next year.”
3. “Taking an advanced history class will help you think more abstractly about the various subjects you will study in college.”
4. “Use your knowledge of algebra to simplify this chemistry equation.”

Kaehler is hoping that the students in her mathematics class will transfer the things they learn in class to real-world situations. Which one of the following things should she not do?
1. Help students understand the logic behind mathematical procedures.
2. Make sure that students master each topic before moving to the next one.
3. Have students practice basic arithmetic operations on just one or two vivid examples.
4. Teach students general principles more than specific facts.

Considering factors that affect transfer, identify the group of students most likely to transfer what they are learning.
1. Students in Mr. Allen’s geography class are studying several countries this week, memorizing the locations of their rivers and major cities.
2. Students in Ms. Elbert’s music class are practicing major chords in different keys this semester, practicing each one in a variety of songs.
3. Students in Mr. Ivy’s science class are studying the characteristics of mammals and reptiles this week.
4. Students in Ms. Martin’s social studies class are studying major events in the history of Mexico this month, beginning with the Aztec empire and continuing until the present time.

Sharp wants her students to use what they learn in their psychology class to interact with other people more effectively. Given what we know about factors that promote transfer, which one of the following teaching strategies is most likely to accomplish this objective?
1. Present a prototype of how effective interaction occurs.
2. Have students describe behaviors that might promote effective interaction.
3. Have students apply effective interaction skills in role-playing situations.
4. Ask questions that encourage students to review the basic principles they have learned about human interaction.

Which one of the following problems is the best example of an ill-defined problem?
1. Staying dry in a rainstorm
2. Clearing a driveway after a snowstorm
3. Determining the average of a set of test scores
4. Helping a friend whose feelings have been hurt

Peter is trying to find something his cat will eat. He presents a variety of different foods to the cat until eventually she begins to eat something. Peter’s approach to the problem of feeding a finicky cat can probably best be understood from which of the following perspectives of problem solving?
1. Stages of problem solving
2. Trial-and-error
3. The Gestalt notion of insight
4. Response hierarchy

Will is trying to repair a leaky faucet. He first uses the method he used on the last three leaky faucets he repaired, but this approach doesn’t work. Then he tries a technique he used several years ago, but this doesn’t work either. Finally he remembers a method his mother taught him long ago, and this one stops the leak. Will’s approach to the problem can probably best be understood from which of the following perspectives of problem solving?
1. Stages of problem solving
2. Trial-and-error
3. The Gestalt notion of insight
4. Response hierarchy

Peg is trying to change a light bulb in a ceiling light, but she cannot reach the light even when she stands on a chair. She looks around the room, puzzled, and then suddenly realizes that she can reach the light by piling two telephone books on the chair and standing on them. Peg’s approach to the problem can probably best be understood from which one of the following perspectives of problem solving?
1. Stages of problem solving
2. Trial-and-error
3. The Gestalt notion of insight
4. Response hierarchy

Martha is trying to decide what to give to her best friend Rose as a birthday present. She begins by looking closely at how Rose spends her time. She also browses in a number of different department stores to identify numerous things within her price range. Then she lets the problem “incubate” in her head for a few days while she engages in other activities. Eventually she chooses what she thinks will be the best gift for Rose. Martha’s approach to the problem can probably best be understood from which of the following perspectives of problem solving?
1. Stages of problem solving
2. Trial-and-error
3. The Gestalt notion of insight
4. Response hierarchy

David is trying to calculate the total cost of the groceries in his grocery cart. He has four apples for 35¢ each, five potatoes for 15¢ each, and three cake mixes for $2.25 each. He begins by thinking to himself, “Let’s see, four times 35¢ is what? Two times 35¢ is 70¢, and then two times 70¢ is $1.40. And then what do I do next? Oh, yes, I need to know what 5 times 15 equals. I can’t remember, but let’s see if I can figure it out….” From an information processing perspective, David may have difficulty solving the problem because:
1. He is using an inappropriate heuristic.
2. His working memory capacity may be insufficient to hold and process all the information.
3. He is encoding the problem incorrectly.
4. He is demonstrating functional fixedness with regard to his knowledge of multiplication facts.

Missy is given this problem:

Mt. Washington is lower than Mt. Jefferson.

Mt. Washington is higher than Mt. Adams.

Which mountain is highest?

Missy reads the fourth word incorrectly—she thinks the word is higher rather than lower—and consequently answers the problem incorrectly. From an information processing perspective, Missy’s difficulty is due to:

Her limited working memory capacity
Functional fixedness
The way she encodes information
The fact that she is retrieving information that hasn’t been stored meaningfully

Perry is trying to solve the following riddle: “What creature walks first on four legs, then two, then three?” He repeatedly tries to think of an animal that might walk on three legs, but he can only think of animals that walk on either two or four legs. Finally, he is told the correct answer: a human being, who crawls, then walks, then walks with a cane. Which one of the following is the most likely explanation of Perry’s difficulty?
1. He has encoded the problem with too narrow a definition of “legs.”
2. He doesn’t have enough working memory capacity.
3. He doesn’t have a sufficient knowledge base.
4. He is suffering from functional fixedness.

When Daneesha encounters the problem “If apples are 35¢ each, how much will 7 apples cost?” she thinks, “Many items at the same price . . . hmm, this kind of situation usually calls for multiplication.” Daneesha’s reasoning reflects the use of:
1. incubation
2. inert knowledge
3. a problem schema
4. means–ends analysis

Sheila is a physicist who has been successfully solving physics problems for years. Tamara is a beginning physics student. Which one of the following differences between Sheila and Tamara are we most likely to see in terms of how they approach physics problems?
1. Sheila is more likely than Tamara to make sure the problems are well-defined before she begins to solve them.
2. Sheila is more likely than Tamara to classify problems based on their superficial characteristics.
3. Sheila is apt to retrieve less information from long-term memory than Tamara retrieves.
4. Sheila is more likely than Tamara to have functional fixedness when she works on problems.

Which one of the following examples most clearly illustrates how mental set can interfere with problem solving?
1. A few days after an argument with her boyfriend, Abigail wants to make amends, but the boyfriend tells her that he is now dating someone else.
2. Bernadette needs to calculate the volume of a pyramid. She knows she learned the correct formula in class, but she can’t seem to remember it now.
3. Corinne is working on a jigsaw puzzle. One of the pieces to the puzzle is missing.
4. Danielle’s car won’t start. It doesn’t occur to her that she can take the bus to work because she has always driven her car to work before.

Which one of the following examples most clearly illustrates the effect of functional fixedness on problem solving?
1. Arnie is trying to solve a physics problem on a classroom test. He is so anxious that he can’t recall the problem-solving strategies he needs.
2. Bradley is looking for something to haul water but doesn’t have a bucket. He fails to realize that his plastic wastebasket could easily carry water.
3. Charlie is doing a series of addition problems. He overlooks the subtraction sign on the last problem and so adds when he should subtract.
4. Doug is angry that another boy stole his bicycle. Rather than report the theft to the police, he steals a bicycle from someone else.

Which one of the following examples most clearly illustrates the role of retrieval in problem solving?
1. Arnie is trying to solve a physics problem on a classroom test. He is so anxious that he can’t recall the problem-solving strategies he needs.
2. Bradley is looking for something to haul water but doesn’t have a bucket. He fails to realize that his plastic wastebasket could easily carry water.
3. Charlie is doing a series of addition problems. He overlooks the subtraction sign on the last problem and so adds when he should subtract.
4. Doug is angry that another boy stole his bicycle. Rather than report the theft to the police, he steals a bicycle from someone else.

From the perspective of information processing theory, incubation facilitates problem solving primarily by:
1. enhancing attentional focus on the problem to be solved
2. slightly expanding the capacity of working memory
3. enabling a more expansive search of long-term memory
4. increasing one’s ability to engage in means–ends analysis

Research indicates that people are more likely to be successful problem solvers in a given subject area when they:
1. pay considerable attention to details
2. know the subject matter very well
3. have had extensive training in logical thinking
4. have already acquired problem-solving expertise in a very different subject area

Three of the following examples reflect the use of metacognition in problem solving. Which one shows little or no metacognition?
1. When Allan discovers that his homework assignment in social studies involves an especially ill-defined and difficult problem, he realizes that he will have to devote a considerable amount of time to the assignment.
2. Brendan is replacing an old, single-paned window in his home with a new, double-paned window unit. Before he begins to work, he thinks about the steps he will need to take and jots down the tools and materials he will need to purchase.
3. Clyde is working on a series of word problems after a unit on multiplication of two-digit numbers. To complete the task as quickly as possible, he simply multiplies the two numbers he sees in each problem; he doesn’t bother to read the problems themselves.
4. When Duncan’s chemistry teacher assigns a challenging problem that she wants her students to address in chemistry lab, Duncan feels confident that he has both the knowledge and skills to solve the problem successfully if he works slowly and carefully.

Rangel asks his students to write an essay describing how they would deal with the problem of the diminishing areas in which gorillas can successfully live in the wild. Three of the following factors should influence his students’ ability to describe possible solutions to the problem. Which factor will not influence students’ ability to do well—either for the better or for the worse—on the essay?
1. Students’ anxiety about how well they do on the essay
2. How much students know about the countries in which gorillas reside
3. How carefully students internally monitor their ways of thinking about the problem
4. The number of specific algorithms students have learned for solving problems in other disciplines (e.g., physics, mathematics)

The primary advantage of using an algorithm (rather than a heuristic) is that it:
1. Always yields a correct solution if executed correctly
2. Is widely applicable to many different content domains
3. Can be easily used by the typical 6-year-old child
4. Never takes more than five minutes to complete

Sarah needs to solve this word problem:

A sweater in a store is originally priced at $40, but the price tag is marked “One-half off.” The sweater is placed on a rack marked “Five dollars off the sale price.” How much does the sweater cost now?

Sarah knows how to find one-half of a number; she also knows how to subtract one number from another. She uses both of these operations to arrive at the correct answer of $15. Which one of the following best describes Sarah’s approach to problem solving?

Drawing an analogy
Availability
Working backward
Combining algorithms

Which one of the following problems is most likely to be solved with a heuristic rather than an algorithm?
1. Calculating the volume of a cylinder
2. Resolving an argument
3. Solving a difficult algebra problem
4. Using an old recipe to cook chili

Which one of the following is the best example of someone using a heuristic (rather than an algorithm) in problem solving?
1. Susan wants to know how long it will take her to drive from Phoenix to Los Angeles. She knows that the distance is 400 miles, and she figures she will average 50 miles an hour with stops, so she predicts the trip will take 8 hours.
2. Vinnie has a round hot tub that is six feet in diameter; he wants to build a top to cover it. He remembers the formula for calculating the area of a circle and works out how many feet of lumber he needs.
3. John wants to buy a computer. He compares prices at different computer stores and buys whichever model is least expensive.
4. Marion can’t think of a plot for the short story she needs to write. She breaks her task into smaller pieces: First she’ll decide who the main character will be, then she’ll think of a conflict for that character to experience, and finally she’ll identify a reasonable resolution of that conflict.

Nine-year-old Aleesa wants her father to play a video game with her, but Dad tells her, “Sorry, honey, I don’t have time. There are dirty dishes in the kitchen sink, and the living room has to be dusted and vacuumed. I need to clean the house before Grandma and Grandpa come tonight. Aleesa thinks for a moment and then says, “How about if I wash the dishes and do the dusting? That way, you’ll have some time to play with me.” Aleesa’s approach to solving her problem—convincing Dad to play a video game—most clearly reflects:
1. brainstorming
2. use of an analogy
3. functional fixedness
4. means–ends analysis
Matthew’s mother teaches him to measure butter for cooking by placing the butter in a measuring cup partially filled with water and seeing how high the water rises. In his science lab a few days later, Matthew realizes he can use the same procedure to measure the volume of an irregularly shaped object. Which one of the following best describes Matthew’s approach to problem solving?
1. Working backward
2. Visual imagery
3. Drawing an analogy
4. Brainstorming

People are most likely to engage in meaningful problem solving when they:
1. Use heuristics rather than algorithms
2. Have large working memory capacities
3. Understand the logic underlying the procedures they use
4. Focus on only one small part of a problem at a time

Which of the following students is most clearly engaging in adaptive expertise?
1. Alex loves to ride his bike to school and gets many other children to join him.
2. Julie is very good at chemistry. She often receives the highest grade in her class and has started tutoring other students in chemistry.
3. Marisa struggles with math, however she is very good at English.
4. Paul always excelled at math in school. He now works as a construction worker and used arithmetic everyday to calculate measurements.

Three of the four teachers below are likely to facilitate her students’ ability to solve problems in the classroom. Which teacher is least likely to do so?
1. Axelrod wants her students to have an in-depth understanding of classroom subject matter.
2. Blakely explains to her students that algorithms are almost always better than heuristics for solving problems.
3. Corning often assigns a series of word problems that differ in terms of the specific mathematical operations (e.g., addition, subtraction) needed for problem solution.
4. After her students read a chapter about the attack on Pearl Harbor during World War II, Ms. Darwin asks them to identify potential problems that the attack created for the United States government.

Which one of the following best describes a classroom that has a culture of transfer?
1. Teacher and students regularly look for ways to apply what they’re studying.
2. Students from diverse backgrounds meet in small groups to brainstorm potential solutions to social problems.
3. The teacher encourages students to share their study strategies with one another.
4. Classroom topics are never labeled as “belonging” to a particular academic discipline (e.g., as being a “mathematical” procedure or a part of “history”).

Three of the following examples illustrate the use of scaffolding in promoting students’ problem-solving abilities. Which example does not illustrate scaffolding?
1. Amayo presents an example of a computer program that alphabetizes a list of names. She then has students do something similar—write a program that puts items in numerical order.
2. When students struggle with arithmetic word problems, Ms. Blake gives them subtle hints about how to proceed.
3. Charlesworth gives easy, straight-forward problems at first, then gradually progresses to more difficult ones.
4. Darlington makes sure that all students know physics concepts well before he asks them to solve problems.

Which of the following students is most likely using a digital intelligent tutoring program?
1. Molly is using a spelling program that audibly presents her with words to spell using her keyboard. If she misspells a word, the program gives her personalized guidance to teach her to correctly spell the word.
2. Jake is using a program that advertises itself as helping children become more intelligent. It gives him many different problems to solve in a specific amount of time.
3. Nancy is using a program to learn how to tutor young children. She is instructed to read various passages and answer corresponding questions.
4. Chris is using a program to learn how to type. It provides no feedback for incorrect responses.

Three of the following statements describe how cooperative groups can promote more effective problem solving. Which statement is not an accurate statement regarding the benefits of cooperative group problem solving?
1. Group members are likely to come to quick consensus about the best way to solve a problem.
2. Group members can clarify their individual sources of confusion regarding the subject matter in question.
3. By describing possible problem-solving strategies to their peers, students may gain better insight into the cognitive processes they use.
4. Group members who possess effective problem-solving strategies model the use of such strategies for others.

Which one of the following statements best describes theorists’ rationale for advocating the use of authentic activities?
1. Authentic activities are the most efficient way of teaching basic skills to a level of automaticity.
2. Authentic activities have built-in scaffolding that assures students’ success.
3. Authentic activities help students transfer classroom subject matter to real-world contexts.
4. Authentic activities usually promote a mental set, which facilitates students’ knowledge construction.

Three of the following are true statements regarding problem based learning? Which of the following is not?
1. New skills and knowledge are acquired while solving complex and real-world problems.
2. Problem based learning is not effective in higher education (i.e. undergraduate and graduate levels); it is only effective in K-12 settings.
3. Problem based learning can be highly motivating to students.
4. The complex problems used in problem based learning can impose very heavy cognitive loads.

Which one of the following is the best example of problem-based learning?
1. Using a map to find a “secret treasure” in a local park helps students acquire new map-reading skills.
2. Reading two different descriptions of a single historical event helps students understand that historical writing is often biased in accordance with an author’s political views.
3. Solving a variety of mathematical word problems helps students practice the basic addition and subtraction facts they’ve previously learned.
4. Following a teacher’s instructions in a chemistry lab gives students first-hand experience with some of the chemical reactions they’ve been studying in class.

Three of the following should help students learn mathematical problem-solving procedures. Given the textbook’s discussion of problem solving, which one is least likely to be effective?
1. Accompany word problems with illustrative pictures.
2. Provide worked-out examples that illustrate a particular procedure.
3. Have students apply the procedures to real-world problems in the classroom.
4. Encourage students to do problems entirely in their heads whenever possible.

Which one of the following is most likely to be useful in teaching children to solve mathematical problems effectively?
1. Teaching tricks such as “When you see altogether in a problem, you should add”
2. Making sure that students know why procedures work, as well as how to use them
3. Having students practice procedures in isolation before applying them to real-life situations
4. Making sure that students can think abstractly before they begin to solve problems

Three of the teachers below are using techniques that should facilitate students’ problem-solving abilities. Which one is not doing so?
1. Arons has students practice their basic multiplication and division facts until they can recall each fact quickly and easily.
2. Bohlender emphasizes factual knowledge on classroom exams.
3. Curry gives students practice in changing ill-defined problems into more well-defined ones.
4. On his quizzes, Mr. Dickinson includes problems that students haven’t seen before.

Critical thinking can best be described as involving:
1. Knowing the best course of action to take in complex situations
2. Using heuristics to solve problems
3. Keeping an open mind about controversial issues
4. Judging the credibility of information or arguments

Only one of the following students is definitely engaging in critical thinking. Which one?
1. Louise has a puzzled look as she reads her textbook. “I don’t understand what the author is trying to say,” she thinks.
2. Sam reads over his responses to the essay questions on an astronomy test. “I think I’ve done my best,” he tells himself. “I’m pretty sure I answered the first two questions correctly, but I’m not so sure how well I did on the last question.”
3. As Morgan watches her lab partner experiment with a pendulum, she says, “You just changed the length of the string at the same time you added more weight. That won’t tell us anything.”
4. Raul jumps at the chance to learn how to use desktop publishing software. “I’m particularly interested in learning how to integrate text and graphics,” he tell his teacher.

Other things being equal, which one of the following students is most likely to engage in critical thinking about scientific topics?
1. Al is a “trivia whiz” who loves to memorize obscure scientific facts.
2. Brita realizes that scientists’ theories change as new evidence comes in.
3. Chris is confident that she can understand something if she puts her mind to it.
4. Devin often asks questions when he doesn’t understand a section of the textbook.

Webster tells students, “The author of our history textbook knows what he’s talking about. He’s a well-respected scholar whose specialty is the period we’re reading about this month: colonial America.” Although such a statement might certainly be beneficial in some respects, it has which one of the following drawbacks?
1. It will promote negative rather than positive transfer of the subject matter.
2. It will increase the probability that students have functional fixedness.
3. It is unlikely to foster an inclination to critically evaluate textbook content.
4. It will predispose students to use algorithms rather than heuristics while studying.

According to the text book, Which of the following factors does not influence a person’s critical thinking skills?
1. Income
2. Personality characteristics
3. Epistemic beliefs
4. Cultural upbringing

Three of the following teaching strategies should promote critical thinking. Which strategy, although beneficial in other ways, will not necessarily promote critical thinking skills?
1. Teach critical thinking skills within the context of several different subject-area courses.
2. Have students relate new information to things they already know about the world.
3. Have students debate a controversial issue by taking a perspective in direct opposition to what they actually believe.
4. Ask students to read a persuasive essay and look for possible flaws in the author’s line of reasoning.

If you wanted students to learn how to critically evaluate what they read on Internet websites, you would be most likely to:
1. Ask students to consider the motives of the people creating the websites
2. Suggest that students check to see how recently the information was posted on the websites
3. Urge students to disregard any websites that aren’t sponsored by a well-respected agency or organization
4. Tell students that websites with eye-catching graphics are usually designed by professionals and therefore offer credible information

Essay Questions

Distinguish between positive and negative transfer, and give a concrete example of each to illustrate the distinction.

Distinguish between general and specific transfer, and give a concrete example of each to illustrate the distinction. Describe the four perspectives of transfer listed below in terms of their views on general and specific transfer:
1. Formal discipline
2. Similarity of stimuli and responses
3. Information processing
4. Situated learning

Describe the roles that the following four factors play in problem solving, and illustrate each factor’s role with a concrete example:
1. Working memory capacity
2. Encoding processes
3. Long-term memory retrieval
4. Metacognition

Describe five different things that teachers can do to facilitate students’ transfer of what is learned in the classroom to real-world situations and problems.

Transfer what you have learned about transfer and problem solving to a professional situation in which you might find yourself. More specifically:
1. Using either an educational or therapeutic context, describe a specific idea or principle you might want students or clients to apply outside the educational or therapeutic setting. In particular, describe what information you would want them to learn within the educational or therapeutic context, and how you hope they would transfer it in dealing with the outside world.
2. Explain how your students’ or clients’ success in transferring this information and/or using it to solve problems might be more or less successful depending on:

How they encode/store the original information, and the extent to which they elaborate on it
How they encode/store the transfer/problem-solving situation, and the extent to which they elaborate on that situation

Imagine that you are teaching a course in human learning to future teachers. You want students to transfer what they learn in their class to their own teaching practice. Describe three strategies you might use to help students transfer what they learn in your class.

Choose a particular content domain (e.g., math, science, history, English literature) and give two examples that critical thinking in that domain might entail. Your examples should reflect two of the following forms of critical thinking:

Verbal reasoning
Argument analysis
Probabilistic reasoning
Hypothesis testing

Describe three different strategies you might use to encourage students to engage in critical thinking about a topic. Illustrate each strategy with a concrete example.

CHAPTER 14

MOTIVATION AND AFFECT

Multiple Choice Questions

Several teachers complain, “Our students just aren’t motivated.” Is it possible that these teachers are describing their students accurately?
1. No, because virtually all students have motives of one kind or another.
2. Perhaps, but only if the teachers are working in the elementary grades.
3. Perhaps, but only if the teachers are working with high school students.
4. Perhaps, especially if the teachers are working in low-income school districts.

Which one of the following examples best illustrates the concept of situated motivation?
1. Nathan gets extremely upset when he gets anything less than a perfect score on a test paper, probably because his parents have always expected him to be perfect at everything he does.
2. Last year Ophelia was bored to tears in history class, but this year she loves history because her teacher seems to make the subject come alive.
3. Polly is afraid of water because once, when she was a little girl, she almost drowned.
4. Quinton would really like to play on his high school basketball team, but because he’s quite short, he has settled for what he considers to be second-best: being on the wrestling team.

Which of the following statements is true of situated motivation?
1. A learner’s environment influences their motivation.
2. A learner’s motivation influences their learning environment.
3. A learner’s environment influences their motivation and the learner’s motivation influences their learning environment.
4. A learner’s motivation can only be influenced by intrinsic factors.

The four statements below describe effects that motivation may have on cognition and/or behavior. Three of the statements are accurate. Which one is not necessarily accurate?
1. Motivation influences how information is mentally processed.
2. Motivation enhances memory for information irrelevant to the task at hand.
3. Motivation increases task persistence.
4. Motivation influences the choices that people make.

Which one of the following is the best example of extrinsic motivation?
1. Enjoying scary movies
2. Finding a good book impossible to put down
3. Wanting a good grade in your history class
4. Thinking that aerobic exercise is a healthy way to spend your time

Which one of the following students is displaying extrinsic motivation?
1. Albert wants to be an accountant because he likes working with numbers.
2. Brad wants to be a veterinarian because he loves animals and wants to help them.
3. Caryn wants to become a varsity soccer player so others will admire her.
4. Donnetta wants to become an actress because she thinks acting is fun.

Which one of the following students is displaying intrinsic motivation?
1. Annette loves to play the viola and so practices for at least an hour each day.
2. Bob works hard in his classes because his parents have promised to buy him a car if he gets at least a 3.5 grade-point-average this year.
3. Cassie does her math homework faithfully every night because she likes her teacher and wants to please him.
4. Dennis takes physics because he wants to become an engineer and make a lot of money.

Three of the following are true statements about intrinsic and/or extrinsic motivation in instructional settings. Which one is false?
1. Reminding students of how important good grades are will promote extrinsic motivation more than intrinsic motivation.
2. Compared to students who are extrinsically motivated, students who are intrinsically motivated are more likely to learn classroom material in meaningful and effective ways.
3. Extrinsically motivated students may sometimes exert only the minimal effort needed to complete classroom assignments.
4. Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation are mutually exclusive: Students who have one are highly unlikely to have the other.

Carlton often gets so wrapped up in a video game that he has little or no awareness of events going on around him. An entire afternoon can pass by very quickly as he meets one challenge after another in his video-game world. Carlton’s motivation state can best be characterized as involving:
1. Flow
2. Drive reduction
3. Self-handicapping
4. Extrinsic motivation

Which one of the following situations best illustrates the role of drive reduction in behavior?
1. After not having had time for either breakfast or lunch, Adam eats three hamburgers and a plateful of french fries for dinner.
2. Bernice is intrigued by her psychology course because it helps her understand why she and her friends do some of the things they do when they interact.
3. Connor works out at the gym each day; his goal is to win the title of “Mr. Fitness.”
4. Debbie brings her knitting with her on a long bus trip so she’ll have something to do to pass the time.

Which one of the following statements is consistent with Hull’s notion of how both habit and drive affect performance?
1. “Sometimes I get so nervous that I’m all butterfingers.”
2. “I’ve walked that route so often that I could probably do it in my sleep.”
3. “I won’t do it—I don’t want to, and I don’t know how.”
4. “You can do anything if you try hard enough.”

For which one of the following individuals is behavior clearly affected by an incentive?
1. Alphonso gets wrapped up in a mystery novel and doesn’t hear the doorbell ring.
2. Blake does several extra-credit projects to ensure his A in sociology.
3. Cecil smiles when his girlfriend gives him a new sweater.
4. Darren eats junk food even when he’s not hungry.

Drive reduction theory is no longer as popular as it was in early conceptions of motivation. Which one of the following research findings contributed to the demise of drive reduction theory?
1. Although drive reduction theory explains virtually all of rat behavior, it explains very little of human behavior.
2. For some organisms, drive is a physiological impossibility.
3. For human beings, so many drives exist simultaneously that it’s impossible to completely satisfy them all.
4. Organisms sometimes behave in ways that increase rather than reduce drive.

Day after day, Raymond’s history teacher lectures about the subject matter in a dry, unengaging manner and expects students simply to sit quietly and take notes. To make class a little more exciting for himself and the students sitting near him, Raymond often draws cartoon faces on the tips of his fingers and performs little finger-puppet shows at his desk. Raymond’s behavior in class can probably best be explained as:
1. Satisfying his need for arousal
2. Enabling him to achieve self-actualization
3. Reflecting a high need for achievement
4. Reducing cognitive dissonance

Janice finds playing the fiddle to be a wonderful outlet for self-expression. In terms of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, Janice is striving to fulfill:
1. Her need for self-esteem
2. Her need for esteem from others
3. Her need for self-actualization
4. Her love and belongingness needs

From Maslow’s perspective, which one of the following best reflects a deficiency need?
1. Lorne writes and plays folk songs as a way of expressing himself.
2. Geri finds ancient civilizations fascinating.
3. Rachel is curious about why her science experiment didn’t turn out the way she expected it would.
4. Bill is worried that Mark might beat him up on the way home from school.

Which one of the following teaching practices is most consistent with Maslow’s hierarchy of needs?
1. Occasionally remind students that they can get good grades only if they study on a regular basis.
2. Let students release pent-up energy before asking them to watch an educational video.
3. Tell students they must finish an assignment before they go to lunch.
4. Reinforce students consistently for appropriate classroom behavior.

If you were to incorporate Maslow’s hierarchy of needs into your teaching practices, you would be most likely to:
1. Emphasize the importance of getting good grades
2. Remind students frequently about how their current achievements in school will affect their success as adults
3. Make sure your students feel safe and secure
4. Focus on the use of intrinsic reinforcers (such as feeling proud) rather than extrinsic reinforcers (such as praise) for all students

An eighth grader named Marianne consistently refuses to do difficult classroom assignments because she’s afraid of failing at them. Which one of the basic needs described in the textbook is Marianne most clearly trying to address?
1. Her need for relatedness
2. Her need for self-determination
3. Her need for arousal
4. Her need for competence

Which one of the following individuals shows motivation consistent with self-worth theory?
1. Monica doesn’t read the comments her teacher has written on her research paper because she suspects that they’re not very flattering.
2. Isabelle goes to see the horror movie “Scream” with her friends; later that night, she has considerable trouble falling asleep.
3. Jacob spends long hours staring at the sky each night, looking for various constellations and thinking about ancient legends associated with each one.
4. Luke reads People magazine from cover to cover as soon as it arrives in the mail each week; he especially enjoys reading stories about movie stars.

Marion puts off doing a project for the science fair until she has so little time to do it that she cannot possibly complete a good project. Such behavior is most consistent with the concept of:
1. drive
2. trait anxiety
3. hot cognition
4. self-handicapping

Relationships with peers are often foremost in 12-year-old Jonathan’s mind and can have a huge impact on his emotional state. For example, when classmates treat him well, he’s quite happy and self-assured, but when someone snubs him or makes fun of him, he becomes very depressed and thinks, “No one likes me.” Which one of the following concepts related to motivation best explains Jonathan’s significant mood swings?
1. Contingent self-worth
2. Self-handicapping
3. Self-actualization
4. Need for achievement

Kiki is confident that she’ll do well in the advanced math course she is taking this year. Given this information, which one of the following is most likely to be true about Kiki?
1. She will put in only the minimal amount of effort she will need to get a good grade in the class.
2. She will procrastinate in doing her assignments, sometimes to the point that it is impossible to complete them successfully.
3. She will be intrinsically motivated to learn the new ideas and procedures presented in the class.
4. During class time she will focus more on social relationships with classmates than on course material.

Which one of the following statements best describes motivation theorists’ concept of autonomy?
1. Reinforcing yourself when you do a good job
2. Believing that you have some choice about what you do
3. Deciding what kind of person you want to become
4. Knowing you can accomplish something if you just put your mind to it

Three of the following teaching strategies should enhance students’ sense of Which one is unlikely to do so?
1. Describing desired classroom behaviors in an informational manner rather than as what students “must” do.
2. Suggesting study strategies that can help students learn classroom subject matter more effectively.
3. Giving students occasional choices about how to accomplish classroom objectives.
4. Making students well aware that you always know what they’re doing and how well they’re doing it.

Which one of the following teaching strategies is most likely to increase students’ sense of autonomy?
1. Aas reminds his students that they can’t participate in the school’s extracurricular sports program if their grade-point-averages fall below 2.0.
2. Brown asks her third graders to develop some class rules to ensure that all class members will have a chance to express their ideas openly.
3. Cranwell tells his middle school students that good writing skills are important in the business world.
4. Diaz gives his students enough practice with basic arithmetic facts that they learn them to a level of automaticity.

Choose the teacher below who is most likely to promote a sense of autonomy in his or her students.
1. Andre provides several possible organizational schemes that students can use, if they wish, to organize their oral presentations.
2. Brooks reminds his students that the deadline for their research paper is a week from Friday.
3. Chambers praises his students for continuing to work quietly when he was called away from the classroom.
4. Dacono reminds her students, “You should know your multiplication tables by now.”

Rawlins is faculty advisor for the high school service club. He attends every meeting, and he regularly provides the support students need to carry out their activities. During group discussions, however, he typically sits in the back of the room and offers advice only if club members ask for it or if he thinks the club’s planned activities are in some way inappropriate. In taking this approach, Mr. Rawlins is most likely to:
1. Promote debilitating anxiety
2. Decrease club members’ sense of competence
3. Enhance club members’ sense of autonomy
4. Reduce club members’ interest in public service
Which one of the following best illustrates secondary control as a factor that can enhance a person’s self of autonomy?
1. Alla says to her best friend, “I wish I were as smart as you are in math. I guess I just don’t have good ‘math genes.’ ”
2. Frustrated that he doesn’t make the high school baseball team, Bob lashes out by hitting his younger brother.
3. When a classmate makes fun of Christine’s slight speech impediment, she retaliates by saying, “Well, at least I have a good complexion. Those pimples of yours are really gross!”
4. When Donald gets a low score on an exam, he thinks, “I underestimated what it would take to do well in this class. I guess I need to start studying harder.”

Three of the following behaviors reflect the need for relatedness. Which one does not?
1. As she studies for a physics exam, Christianne tries to think how she might apply physics in her own life.
2. Ashleigh and Diane pass notes back and forth during their math class.
3. Ted likes working with children and especially enjoys his volunteer activities with the Special Olympics.
4. Mike takes up smoking because he thinks it will make him look “cool.”

Which one of the following descriptions best illustrates a trait theory of motivation?
1. “Did you see that big grin on Maurice’s face when the principal announced that he was the winner of the essay contest?”
2. “Jane is always putting herself in dangerous situations. Maybe she likes the adrenaline rush that comes with living on the edge.”
3. “Half of the time, Chloe seems bored with what’s going on in class. I’ve tried everything I can think of to motivate her, but so far nothing’s worked.”
4. “Morey is really struggling with his reading, and his spelling is atrocious. I wonder if he has an undiagnosed learning disability.”

While working on a series of math problems, Kate stops after each problem to ask her teacher, “Did I do this right?” or “Is this one OK?” With this information in mind, which one of the following is most likely to be true about Kate?
1. She has a high need for a sense of identity.
2. She has a high need for approval.
3. She has a high need for achievement.
4. She has a high motive to avoid failure.

Marc loves playing ping pong. When he plays with a friend, he concentrates intently on the game and tries very hard to win. He experiments with different shots (occasionally losing a game in the process) and eventually perfects a few shots that are extremely difficult for an opponent to return. With this information in mind, which one of the following is most likely to be true about Marc?
1. He has a high need for a sense of identity.
2. He has a high need for approval.
3. He has a high need for achievement.
4. He has a high motive to avoid failure.

Juliana often tries to define who she is and what she stands for. For example, she sees herself as person who is attentive to other people’s needs and well-being. With this information in mind, which one of the following is most likely to be true about Juliana?
1. He has a high need for a sense of identity.
2. He has a high need for approval.
3. He has a high need for achievement.
4. He has a high motive to avoid failure.

At try-outs for the school musical production, Trudy would like to gain the leading role, but she knows that several other girls are trying out for the same role. Trudy instead auditions for the chorus, confident that she can make it without any difficulty. With this information in mind, which one of the following is most likely to be true about Trudy?
1. She has a high need for a sense of identity and a low need for approval.
2. She has a high need for approval and a low need for a sense of identity.
3. She has a high motive for success and a low motive to avoid failure.
4. She has a high motive to avoid failure and a low motive for success.

Three of the following reflect general dispositions that theorists have described. Which one would not be considered a disposition as psychologists typically use the term?
1. Anne has been afraid of snakes since she was a toddler.
2. Barry enjoys logic puzzles, mathematical brainteasers, and other logically challenging tasks.
3. Calvin refuses to take another person’s word for something unless the person backs up an idea or opinion with convincing evidence.
4. Donna is always looking ahead to future events and taking steps to be sure that things run smoothly.

If you consider research findings regarding dispositions, which one of the following students would you expect to achieve at the highest level in the classroom?
1. Amy has the highest IQ in the class.
2. Britta eagerly seeks out new information and is conscientious about doing her schoolwork.
3. Claudia focuses largely on what’s happening at the moment; she doesn’t worry too much about might happen next week or next month.
4. When Delores encounters two or more perspectives on a topic, she quickly zeroes on the one she thinks is probably the “right” one.

Which one of the following students exhibits a self-conscious emotion?
1. Krista is happy that her teacher has put her in the same cooperative group as her friend Darby.
2. Jacob feels ashamed that he missed an easy field goal during a soccer game.
3. For the past several months, Raina has been depressed about her parents’ divorce.
4. Leo is excited that his class is going to the natural history museum next week.

Eloise’s history teacher lectures for hours at a time with out receiving questions from the class or giving the class a break to speak with each other about the lecture. As a result, Eloise is bored when she is in history class. Given the textbooks’ explanation of boredom as it is related to motivation, which of the following is most likely to be true?
1. Eloise will be motivated to learn the material on her own when she is at home.
2. Eloise will not pay attention in class and therefore will not benefit from the instruction.
3. Eloise will work extra hard to pay attention to the lecture in class.
4. Eloise will loose all interest in history and will avoid all history classes in the future.

Vance is quite surprised to hear that his friend Adam has been caught shoplifting, as he has always thought of Adam as someone who is honest, law-abiding, and respectful of others’ rights and possessions. “There must be a logical explanation for why Adam was seen shoplifting,” Vance thinks to himself, “and I won’t rest until I find out what it is.” Vance’s motivation can best be explained using the concept of:
1. cognitive dissonance
2. state anxiety
3. need for relatedness
4. optimal level of arousal

Which one of the following is the best example of hot cognition?
1. Learning a new strategy for solving a difficult problem
2. Realizing that you finally understand Einstein’s law of relativity
3. Getting excited when you read about a possible cure for Alzheimer’s disease
4. Having a mental block that interferes with your writing ability

You go to an art museum on a Sunday afternoon. Other things being equal, which one of the following pictures are you most likely to remember?
1. A dog baring its teeth at another dog
2. Fruit in a brightly colored Mexican pot
3. A man with a bloody, gruesome chest wound
4. A peaceful farm scene, with cows grazing by a stream

Whenever Gisela has a fight with her boyfriend, she remembers the times he has treated her poorly. But later, when he sends her a dozen roses to apologize for hurting her, she remembers how thoughtful and caring he can often be. Gisela’s change of heart can best be explained using the concept of:
1. sensation seeking
2. challenge (as opposed to threat)
3. need to avoid failure
4. mood-dependent memory

Whenever Elliot thinks about science, he also thinks about how much he likes Which one of the following statements best explains this situation?
1. Elliott’s liking of science is an excellent example of Hull’s theory that behavior strength = habit ´
2. In the brain, people’s affective responses to topics may be closely connected to their knowledge about those topics.
3. Elliott’s love of science suggests that he is a sensation seeker.
4. Elliott’s strong interest in science reflects an interplay of hot cognition and self-conscious emotions.

Which one of the following is the best example of state anxiety rather than trait anxiety?
1. Thea is often nervous in math class, where she rarely participates unless her teacher specifically calls on her. She sits quietly at her desk and doesn’t interact with her classmates because she finds it hard to do so without shaking.
2. Urie is an excellent student, but he has considerable trouble speaking to others in any of his classes. He performs very well on tests and other written work, but he gets exceptionally anxious during group work and oral reports.
3. Viola becomes nervous when she has to give a presentation in front of her English class. This is the first time she has ever had to do something like this and she doesn’t know how well she will do.
4. Wendell becomes nervous whenever he has to take any kind of paper-pencil test, even when he knows what questions are going to be on the test and is thoroughly prepared.

With the textbook’s discussion of arousal and anxiety in mind, identify the best approach to taking a challenging exam.
1. Worry a little bit about the exam, but not too much.
2. In your mind, imagine the worst possible thing that could happen if you fail the exam.
3. Worry about the exam as you study the night before, but be as relaxed as possible when you take it.
4. Be completely relaxed both when you study and when you take the exam.

Which one of the following individuals is most likely to have facilitating anxiety?
1. Art doesn’t begin his 20-page research report for his psychology class until the night before it is due.
2. Bert has heard that his statistics professor is an easy grader, so he isn’t the least bit worried about getting at least a B in his statistics course.
3. Curt can’t find his car keys, and he was supposed to leave 5 minutes ago for the airport to catch his plane.
4. Dave is nervous about doing well in the 100-meter dash.

The textbook distinguishes between a challenge and a threat. Which one of the following is most likely to be a threat rather than a challenge?
1. You think you can probably make the basketball team, but only if you practice every day at home.
2. You are required to take a college course in nuclear physics, even though you failed basic physics in high school.
3. You have invited a friend to dinner and are trying a recipe you’ve never tried before.
4. You’re asked to climb up a twenty-foot rope hanging from the ceiling. You’ve climbed ten feet before, but you’ve never climbed twenty feet.

Jan suffers from extreme math anxiety. Three of the statements below probably describe Jan. Which one does not?
1. She believes she is incapable of succeeding at mathematical tasks.
2. She often performs poorly on math tasks.
3. She was likely introduced to mathematical concepts before she was cognitively ready to handle them.
4. She often has positive emotional reactions to math

Luis suffers from extreme test anxiety. Three of the statements below probably describe Luis. Which one does not?
1. As he takes a test, he looks closely and carefully at the wording of each test question.
2. He has trouble thinking clearly about how to answer each question.
3. He is more worried than his classmates about how his teacher will evaluate his performance.
4. He gets lower test scores than his classmates, even though he knows the material as well as they do.

Karin and her mother live on welfare in a poor, inner-city neighborhood in Detroit. Karin is quite bright and highly motivated, and she really wants to get a college education. However, she knows that, on average, students from low-income homes perform more poorly on the SAT tests than students from wealthier homes. When she takes the SAT, she is so nervous that she has trouble concentrating on the test items, and as a result her scores are lower than they should be. Which of the following concepts best explains what has happened to Karin?
1. Hot cognition
2. Stereotype threat
3. Cognitive dissonance
4. High motive to avoid failure

Lopez, a third-grade teacher, wants to enhance his students’ intrinsic motivation to learn classroom subject matter. Three of the following strategies should accomplish this goal. Which one is not likely to enhance students’ intrinsic motivation to learn?
1. Lopez explains that using quiet, “indoor voices” during a cooperative learning activity can help students accomplish their goals for the activity.
2. Lopez consistently shows students that he cares about their well-being and wants them to do well in his class.
3. Lopez promises his students that they can have free time at the end of the day if they do well on their spelling tests.
4. Lopez gives students the scaffolding they need in order to be successful at challenging tasks.

Three of the following teachers are likely to enhance students’ intrinsic motivation to do well in the classroom. Which one is unlikely to do so?
1. Acton’s enthusiasm about science is evident in everything she does in class.
2. Barton asks students to imagine how scary it must have been to sail across an uncharted ocean with Columbus in 1492.
3. Canton reminds students that good grades are important for getting a college scholarship.
4. Dayton tells students, “This class has produced the most creative art projects I’ve seen in a long time. You should be very proud of yourselves.”

Which one of the following examples is consistent with what the textbook means by giving students a sense of autonomy?
1. Jason can turn his homework in whenever he wants to, even if he waits until the last day of school to turn all his assignments in.
2. Kenda asks her teacher for help whenever she finds a word she doesn’t know the meaning of, or whenever she runs into a problem she hasn’t seen before.
3. In art class, Marie only needs to work on her art project on days when she feels particularly creative.
4. Lonnie knows that he can demonstrate his mastery of an instructional objective in his social studies class in either of two ways—by taking an exam or completing a project.

With the textbook’s discussion of competence and autonomy in mind, choose the teacher below who is most likely to promote intrinsic motivation in his or her students.
1. Andre gives her students concrete suggestions about how to improve their expository writing.
2. Brooks reminds his students that the deadline for their research paper is a week from Friday.
3. Chambers praises his students for continuing to work quietly when he was called away from the classroom.
4. Dacono reminds her students, “You should know your multiplication tables by now.”

Under some conditions, negative feedback can increase students’ intrinsic motivation to perform school tasks. The four teacher statements below all present negative feedback. Choose the statement below that is most likely to promote intrinsic
1. “I know you have the ability to write a better essay than this, Janet. Let me give you some suggestions about what you might do differently next time.”
2. “Yours is the lowest quiz score in the entire class, Bill. I want you to see if you can do better than at least half of your classmates next time.”
3. “The German Club should be embarrassed about the mess it left in the cafeteria after school yesterday. Do you want the rest of the school to think that German Club members are slobs?”
4. “I’m not pleased with the projects that you students turned in yesterday. You should be ashamed of yourselves for not taking the assignment more seriously.”

Which one of the following teaching strategies, while possibly beneficial in other ways, is least likely to foster productive dispositions in students?
1. Asking students to justify their opinions with evidence or logic
2. Modeling open-mindedness about diverse perspectives on global warming
3. Teaching students a particular algorithm to follow in solving math problems
4. Helping students understand that in a research study, correlation between two variables does not necessarily mean that one variable is the cause of the other

Three of the following teachers are likely to enhance students’ motivation to do well in the classroom. Which one is unlikely to do so?
1. Avalon makes sure his classroom assessments are good measures of his classroom objectives.
2. Brandt is full of surprises; his students never know what he’ll ask them to do next.
3. Cisneros sometimes asks his students to work together on group projects.
4. Dobson describes the terrible living conditions on the ships that brought African slaves to the New World during the 1600s, and the students become quite angry about how some of their ancestors behaved.

Which one of the teachers below is using a strategy consistent with the concept of hot cognition?
1. Kozloff shows her students a colorful video that depicts the lives of animals that live in the African Serengeti ecosystem.
2. Waterman encourages his students to try to find good qualities in each of their classmates.
3. Schuler has her students engage in fifteen minutes of vigorous exercise before they sit down to tackle some difficult math problems.
4. Ramirez portrays the Holocaust so vividly that her students become quite angry about the atrocities the Nazis committed.

Three of the following testing practices are consistent with the textbook’s discussion regarding motivation and classroom assessment practices. Which one is not?
1. Make sure students have enough time to answer all questions or complete all assigned tasks.
2. Make sure assessment results provide substantive information about what students do well and how they can improve.
3. Give students increasingly difficult questions or tasks when they get high scores.
4. Base grades on many small assessments rather than one or two big ones.

Essay Questions

As a teacher, you have some students who clearly want to learn the subject matter you are teaching and other students who are interested only in the grades they get in your class.
1. Considering the textbook’s discussion of extrinsic versus intrinsic motivation, how would you expect the two groups of students to differ in terms of classroom learning and performance? Describe five differences you are likely to see between them.
2. Describe three strategies you might use to promote intrinsic motivation in the grade-oriented students.

Describe the five needs in Maslow’s hierarchy. Give examples of how individuals with each need might behave.

In a short paragraph, describe the basic idea underlying self-worth theory. In a second paragraph, explain what self-handicapping is and the role it plays with regard to self-worth. To illustrate your discussion, describe two different kinds of self-handicapping that might occur.

Some motivation theorists believe that students are apt to be intrinsically motivated only if they have both a sense of competence and a sense of autonomy.
1. Briefly describe these two concepts, illustrating each with a concrete example.
2. With these two possible prerequisites for intrinsic motivation in mind, describe four strategies for promoting intrinsic motivation in a classroom setting.

Some motivation theorists believe that human beings have a basic need for relatedness.
1. In a paragraph, explain what theorists mean by this concept, and describe three different student behaviors you might see that would indicate a high need for relatedness.
2. In three additional paragraphs, describe three different strategies you might use to address students’ need for relatedness in the classroom. Be specific as to what you might do.

Most early information processing theorists portrayed human cognition as being a relatively unemotional enterprise, but increasingly researchers have come to realize that cognition and emotion are closely intertwined. Drawing on the textbook’s discussion of affect and its effects, describe three different ways in which cognitive processes and emotions are interrelated, and give a concrete example to illustrate each interrelationship you identify.

Describe how learners’ level of anxiety is likely to affect their learning and performance, being sure to include the concepts of facilitating anxiety and debilitating anxiety in your discussion. Then describe three strategies you might use to keep learners’ anxiety at a productive level.

CHAPTER 15

COGNITIVE FACTORS IN MOTIVATION

Multiple Choice Questions

Which one of the following statements best characterizes contemporary motivation theory?
1. It relates motivation to primary and secondary reinforcers.
2. It considers the cognitive factors that underlie motivation.
3. It focuses on the acquired drives that people develop over time.
4. It describes motivation as being largely the result of emotions.

Which one of the following illustrates personal interest rather than situational interest?
1. Jennifer is puzzled when a peeled hardboiled egg is suddenly sucked into a bottle after the teacher lights a fire inside the bottle.
2. Trent gets totally wrapped up in the adventure novel he is reading during his free time in class.
3. Riley can’t wait to find out what’s in the big cardboard box his teacher has brought to school today.
4. Victoria loves ballet and wants to become a ballerina when she grows up.

Which one of the following exemplifies situational interest rather than personal interest?
1. Adam finds the Guinness Book of World Records on the shelf and is intrigued by the strange people it describes.
2. Blaine can’t think of anything he’d rather do than play poker with his friends.
3. Chuck spends every Saturday and Sunday working on the 1951 Chevy in his garage.
4. Dave loves to snorkel and hopes to be a marine biologist when he finishes college.

Three of the following statements are accurate descriptions of the effect interest has on learning and performance. Which one is not accurate?
1. Interest promotes meaningful learning of information.
2. Interest promotes performance goals rather than mastery goals.
3. Interest increases the likelihood of conceptual change.
4. Interest increases the likelihood that students will apply what they learn.

If we consider factors that promote interest, three of the following teaching strategies should be beneficial. Which one will not be beneficial?
1. Intersperse boring material with entertaining jokes about your personal life.
2. Assign works of fiction that feature a character with whom students can identify.
3. Make some classroom tasks challenging but accomplishable.
4. Choose a textbook that presents information in a clear, coherent fashion.

From an expectancies/values perspective, which one of the following boys is most likely to want to learn how to swim?
1. Antonio’s parents promise him a new bike if he can learn to swim.
2. Bernie plays for hours on end in the bathtub.
3. Chip’s older brother almost drowned last year.
4. Drew is pretty sure he can learn to swim if he tries.

A learner’s expectancy about success in the classroom is influenced by three of the following factors. Which one will probably be least influential?
1. How successful the learner has been in the past
2. How helpful the learner thinks the teacher’s instruction will be
3. Whether the learner has set short-term or long-term goals
4. How much effort the learner thinks will be necessary to succeed

From an expectancies/values perspective, which one of the following activities are you least likely to value?
1. One that will gain the admiration of your peers
2. One to which you’ll have to devote most of your time in order to succeed
3. One that you don’t enjoy but is important for career success
4. One that will enable you to obtain desired reinforcement

Which one of the following is the best example of a core goal?
1. Wanting to do well in school
2. Wanting to find a date for the senior prom
3. Looking desperately for something to drink after a day working in the hot sun
4. Trying to find misplaced car keys when one is late for an appointment

Which one of the following students clearly has a mastery goal rather than a performance goal?
1. Alice is relieved to learn she passed her English composition course.
2. Boris wants the recognition that being a star football player will bring him.
3. Cal doesn’t worry about making mistakes as long as he knows he’s making progress.
4. Dinah stays away from science courses because she’s never done very well in science.

Identify the student who most clearly has a mastery goal rather than a performance goal.
1. When Abby gets a new assignment, she likes to set it aside for a day or so before she actually begins to work on it.
2. Bonnie is a perfectionist who gets upset when her test grades are anything but A+.
3. When given the choice between taking an easy class or a more challenging one, Cora chooses the challenging one.
4. Dana is easily distracted by the many stimuli competing for her attention in the classroom.

Three of the following characterize students with a performance goal. Which one characterizes students with a mastery goal?
1. Trying to learn something word for word
2. Concluding that you need to work harder when you fail
3. Doing something that you know you will be reinforced for
4. Looking at classmates’ performance as an indication of how well you’re doing

Four students in Ms. Bennett’s social studies class have to give an oral report on a country of their choosing. Which one of the students exhibits behavior consistent with a mastery goal?
1. When Eldon gives his report on Hungary, he stands straight and speaks clearly because he wants to impress his teacher and fellow students with his knowledge and ability.
2. Francis wants to give a good presentation on the United Arab Emirates because he needs to improve his overall class grade.
3. John does his report on Spain because that is where his family is from. He has enjoyed talking to his grandfather about what it is like to live in Spain.
4. As Holly gives her report on Mongolia, she is very nervous. She is afraid she might make a fool of herself in front of her classmates.

Which one of the following students clearly has a performance goal rather than a mastery goal?
1. Alec is bored by easy assignments.
2. Blanche always does more than her teacher requires.
3. Christina persists when she encounters a difficult math problem.
4. Devon evaluates his own performance based on how his classmates do.

Which one of the following students clearly has a performance goal rather than a mastery goal?
1. Alicia is working very hard at basketball practice because she wants to her classmates to think she is a good player.
2. Ben doesn’t like going to the dentist and often cries when his mother takes him to his appointments.
3. Casey loves being with her friends and is very popular.
4. Dean likes to play basketball when he comes home after school and often forgets to do his homework.

Three of the following are typically associated with mastery goals. Which one is associated with performance goals, and especially with performance-avoidance goals?
1. Believing that competent people usually succeed without much effort
2. Believing that errors are an inevitable part of the learning process
3. Engaging in such processes as meaningful learning and elaboration
4. Being satisfied with one’s performance if it shows improvement over time

Which one of these students has a performance-approach goal?
1. Frank finds a homework assignment too easy to waste his time on.
2. Herb frequently asks questions in class in order to understand the information better.
3. Selena decides to enter the school science fair in hopes of impressing her teacher, classmates, and parents.
4. Rita was disappointed by her last test score in math. Realizing that people learn from their mistakes, she decides to study harder for the next test using different study strategies.

Which one of the following statements indicates that the speaker is focused on a performance-avoidance goal?
1. “This is my chance to show all my classmates how smart I am.”
2. “Boy, I hope I don’t get this problem wrong. If I do, I’ll look like an idiot.”
3. “I’d really like to become a better math student. I hope the teacher gives me feedback about how I can improve my skills.”
4. “I need to do well in my science classes so I can get into a good engineering school.”

Which one of the following teaching strategies best illustrates the concept press for understanding?
1. Andersen asks students to explain and justify their approach to solving complex problems.
2. Blumenfeld uses a concrete model of the solar system to explain why we have summer and winter.
3. Carowsky has students take true–false quizzes on a certain topic until they earn a score of 90% or higher.
4. dePalma gives an abstract lecture on the concepts of momentum and inertia and then follows it up with several examples of how these concepts can be seen in students’ everyday lives.

Three of the following teaching strategies are likely to promote performance goals. Which one is likely to promote a mastery goal?
1. Encouraging students to strive for perfect scores on their math quizzes
2. Reminding students that colleges look for applicants who have high GPAs
3. Awarding first, second, and third prizes for the three best science fair exhibits
4. Helping students see that they’re making progress in their persuasive writing

Which one of the following students most clearly has a work-avoidance goal?
1. Last night Frederick stayed up so late watching television that he can hardly stay awake in class.
2. Loni is so active in student government that she often doesn’t have time to get her homework done.
3. Chris asks for his teacher’s help on a task he is perfectly capable of doing on his own.
4. Nancy wonders why she has to work harder than her friends to get the same grades they do.

Which one of the following students most clearly has a doing-just enough goal?
1. Dave wants to pass his chemistry class with a C. To do so he reads only the necessary chapters to get a C on the exam.
2. Mae wants to pass her chemistry class with an A. She does all of the assigned reading and any extra reading she can find so she can do very well on the exam.
3. Naomi does not like chemistry and does not study for her exam. However, she received an A on the exam.
4. Prudence really enjoys chemistry, but is a very anxious test taker. No matter how much she studies, she always gets C’s on her exams.

Three of the following are examples of social goals. Which one would not necessarily be considered a social goal?
1. Robert is eager to learn everything he can about terrorists and their personalities.
2. Harry is worried that the homeless in his community may freeze during a bitter cold spell.
3. Jasmine works hard to keep a promise she made to her parents.
4. Mikaela has her hair professionally styled so she’ll look nice at the school dance.

Three of the following behaviors reflect a social goal. Which behavior does not necessarily reflect a social goal?
1. Learning as much as one can about European history
2. Helping a person who has been hurt in an accident
3. Bullying a clumsy and unpopular classmate
4. Seeking a teacher’s approval

For the past three years, 16-year-old Susan has set her sights on becoming an electrical engineer. Which one of the following statements about Susan is consistent with research on career goals?
1. It’s highly unusual for an adolescent like Susan to have such a stable career goal.
2. Susan worries about whether she’ll be able to handle both her career and motherhood.
3. Susan’s high aspirations are quite surprising; most adolescents (boys and girls alike) tend to aspire to careers far below what they are capable of achieving.
4. Susan is likely to find equal numbers of males and females in her college engineering classes.

People often have multiple goals toward which they are striving. Under such circumstances, they may do any three of the following. Which one are they least likely to do?
1. Pursue one or two goals first, leaving others to be accomplished at a later time
2. Redefine their ideas about what it means to achieve their goals successfully
3. Find activities that enable them to accomplish two or more goals simultaneously
4. Become so frustrated that they don’t accomplish any of their goals

Attribution theorists tell us that, in general, when people don’t know why they have been successful or unsuccessful at a task, they are apt to:
1. Assume that ability (or lack of it) was the overriding factor
2. Assume that effort (or lack of it) was the overriding factor
3. Seek out possible explanations for their success or failure
4. Forget about their successes and failures very quickly

Which one of the following is the best example of a student attributing success to an internal factor?
1. Nita has just gotten an A on her final exam in world history and is feeling very grateful to the teacher for her good grade.
2. Polly’s teacher has just told her that she will be the group leader for her reading group next quarter. Polly is glad her teacher is in a good mood today.
3. Renata has just gotten a good grade on her math test and is glad that her mother got her a math tutor.
4. Sue Ellen has just gotten a good grade on her geography test; she’s proud that she did so well and glad that she studied hard.

Which one of the following attributions can be classified as internal, stable, and, uncontrollable?
1. Believing that getting the highest test score in class was all a matter of luck
2. Knowing you did poorly on an assignment because you didn’t give it your best shot
3. Thinking your teacher is too hard a grader
4. Concluding that you just weren’t cut out to be an athlete

Which one of the following students is attributing success or failure on a geology test to an internal source and thinks the cause is unstable and controllable?
1. Jane says she failed the test because it was too difficult.
2. Emily says she did well on the test because she is smart in science
3. Joe says he did well on the test because he studied hard.
4. Drew says he studied hard, but he failed because he is just not good in geology.

Which one of the following teacher statements is most consistent with an entity view of intelligence?
1. “You’re one of the brightest students I’ve ever taught.”
2. “If you keep practicing something, you’ll get better at it.”
3. “The more you know about a topic, the more quickly and easily you can learn new things about it.”
4. “If at first you don’t succeed, try, try again.”

Roxanne and her teammates consistently lose basketball games by a very close margin. Roxanne believes that their losses are always due to bad calls by the referees. With this information and the typical nature of students’ attributions in mind, identify the statement below that is most likely to be an accurate description of Roxanne?
1. She feels guilty about not practicing harder.
2. She feels resentment toward the referees.
3. She has decreasing self-confidence about her ability to play basketball.
4. She intends to ask her coach for suggestions about how to improve her game.

John has just failed a test—in a sense, his test performance has been punished. From the perspective of attributions, is John likely to work harder to pass his next test?
1. Definitely not
2. Absolutely yes
3. Yes, provided that he believes his test performance is the result of something he didn’t do but could do next time
4. Yes, provided that his low test score is accompanied by information about strengths and weaknesses about his performance.

On some occasions, attributing students’ failures to lack of effort is quite appropriate. On other occasions, attributions to effort can backfire and be counterproductive. Which one of the following alternatives is the most accurate description of how attributions to effort can sometimes have adverse effects?
1. When students fail at a task they have tried very hard at and are then told that they didn’t try hard enough, they may decide they simply don’t have the ability to do the task and give up.
2. When students fail at a task at which they have not tried very hard to succeed and are then told that they didn’t exert enough effort, they are likely to feel resentment toward their teacher.
3. When students are told that they didn’t try hard enough at a task that they expended quite a bit of effort on, they will almost certainly attribute the failure to bad luck.
4. When students are told that they didn’t exert enough effort and they really didn’t try very hard, they are likely to attribute their failure to an external factor and not accept responsibility for it.

Shawn has to run the 50-yard dash in physical education. He thinks he has little chance of winning the race but worries about what his friends will think when he loses. Considering research about learners who have an entity view of ability, select the course of action Shawn is most likely to follow.
1. Try to stay right behind the fastest runner.
2. Intentionally run slowly.
3. Run as hard as he can but make excuses about why he lost.
4. Run as hard as he can and convince himself that he won the race even though he didn’t.

Frank is a good student. He attributes his success partly to studying long hours and partly to his intelligence (“High achievement runs in the family,” he says). From the perspective of attributions, three of the following statements are likely to be accurate descriptions of Frank. Which one is probably not an accurate description?
1. He feels proud of his academic accomplishments.
2. He has high self-efficacy regarding school tasks.
3. He expects to continue doing well in school over the next few years.
4. Because he learns quickly, he relies primarily on rote learning strategies.

Virginia is 7 years old. Georgia is 14 years old. Both girls like to write short stories, but neither is a very writer. Virginia is more likely than Georgia to believe that:
1. Good writing is all a matter of luck.
2. She has little chance of ever writing professionally.
3. She can become an excellent writer if she continues to work at it.
4. Professional writing is beyond the reach of all but a few very talented individuals.

Which one of the following girls is most likely to attribute a low exam grade to an external cause?
1. Anna’s teacher encourages her to seek his help if she needs it.
2. Betsy knows that other students in her class all did well on the exam.
3. Carol has gotten low grades on most previous exams.
4. Donna thought she knew the material even though she really didn’t.

Students have just done well on what was obviously an easy assignment. If their teacher praises them for their success, they are likely to:
1. Exert more effort next time
2. Have high self-efficacy for academic tasks
3. Adopt mastery goals rather than performance goals
4. Conclude that they will have difficulty with more challenging tasks

Tim and Sally are two fifth graders who have entered their science projects in an elementary school science fair. They both receive blue ribbons on their projects. Considering gender differences in students’ explanations for success, how are the two students likely to explain their blue ribbons?
1. Tim will think, “I got a ribbon because I’m really good in science.” Sally will think, “I got a ribbon because I worked really hard on my project.”
2. Tim will attribute his ribbon to his many nights of hard work. Sally will think, “I got a ribbon because I’m good in science.”
3. Tim will think that he is lucky when it comes to projects like this. Sally will think that she succeeded because her father is a scientist and she must have inherited his ability.
4. Tim will think, “My project got a ribbon because I had a lot of help from my friends.” Sally will think, “I got a ribbon because I’m smarter than the other kids.”

Mark and Meg are two eighth-grade students who have just failed a math test. Considering gender differences in students’ explanations for failure, how are the two students likely to explain their poor test performance?
1. Mark will think he failed because he “just can’t do math.” Meg will think, “I got an F because I didn’t work hard enough on this subject—I could have studied more.”
2. Mark will attribute his failure to a lack of effort, thinking, “I didn’t study very hard because I don’t care about getting good grades.” Meg will think, “I’m just not very good at math.”
3. Mark will think that he isn’t very lucky when it comes to tests, and Meg will think that she failed because she didn’t have friends that could help her study.
4. Mark will think, “I got an F because I’m not smart enough to do this math.” Meg will think, “I failed because the teacher hates me and the test wasn’t fair.”

Marlita failed her English literature exam. Given what research tells us about the role of self-protective bias as a factor affecting students’ attributions, how is Marlita least likely to explain her failure?
1. She had bad luck.
2. She didn’t study enough.
3. The teacher writes bad exams.
4. The room was too noisy during the exam.

When 15-year-old Valerie discovers that she earned an A on last week’s assignment, she expresses pride to her teacher and explains that she worked very hard on it. On the way home from school, however, she tells her friends that she didn’t put much effort into the project at all and so is quite surprised about her high grade. From the perspective of research on attributions and image management, how can we best explain Valerie’s conflicting statements?
1. She suspects that her friends have performance goals rather than mastery goals, and she is trying to go along with the crowd.
2. She knows that her teacher is more likely than her friends to have an entity view of intelligence, and she tailors her explanations accordingly.
3. She knows that her teacher values hard work but that her friends do not, and she tailors her explanations accordingly.
4. Her social goals are taking precedence over her achievement goals on both occasions.

Which one of the following alternatives best describes the differences between people with a mastery orientation and those with learned helplessness?
1. People with a mastery orientation expect that they will have to work extremely hard to master new tasks. People with learned helplessness usually overestimate their abilities.
2. People with a mastery orientation set easily attainable goals and become frustrated when they don’t attain those goals effortlessly. People with learned helplessness set goals that are almost impossible to attain.
3. People with a mastery orientation attribute their successes to external, uncontrollable factors. People with an attitude of learned helplessness attribute failures to internal, controllable factors.
4. People with a mastery orientation set high goals and seek challenges. People with learned helplessness underestimate their ability and set low goals.

A student who has developed learned helplessness about his or her spelling ability is most likely to say which of the following?
1. “I have to work harder than my friends to learn to spell.”
2. “I can learn how to spell words correctly without even trying.”
3. “No matter how much I study words, I can’t remember how to spell them.”
4. “I would learn to spell eventually, but it’s not worth the time it would take to do so.”

Mona is showing signs of learned helplessness. Which one of the following would we be least likely to see her do?
1. Learn more slowly than other children.
2. Be slow to exhibit behaviors that are likely to be reinforced.
3. Express anger and aggression.
4. Be fearful and withdrawn.

Three of the following statements accurately describe how a child can acquire learned helplessness in a particular domain. Which statement is not a likely explanation of learned helplessness?
1. A child has consistently focused on mastery goals, without regard for important performance goals.
2. A child has consistently encountered failure despite hard work and persistence.
3. A parent has consistently encouraged a child to give up when success doesn’t come quickly and easily.
4. A child sees most or all peers consistently encountering failure in the domain.

James gives weekly quizzes in his social studies classes. Which one of the following boys is most likely to develop learned helplessness about his performance on those quizzes?
1. Alan usually gets As on the quizzes, but he once wrote down the wrong reading assignment and so failed a quiz over material he hadn’t read.
2. Benjamin studies very hard, but due to a reading disability he has trouble understanding what he reads and usually fails the quizzes in spite of his efforts.
3. Corin never studies for the quizzes because he thinks social studies is a boring subject.
4. Darren usually gets at least a C on the quizzes, but he rarely does as well as his friend Eddie.

Researchers have identified several reasons why students may avoid seeking help when they need it during a learning task. Three of the following are among the reasons they’ve identified. Which one is not such a reason?
1. Students worry that others may belittle their requests for help.
2. Students want to maintain their sense of autonomy and independence.
3. Students are worried that asking for help might make them look foolish or incompetent.
4. Students have mastery goals, but not performance goals, relative to the subject matter.

Three of the following examples illustrate ways in which self-regulated learners can control their own motivation. Which one does not?
1. Linda enjoys doing her math homework, but she finds her Spanish homework boring.
2. Sanford continually reminds himself that doing well in his classes is important if he wants to get into medical school.
3. Reese, Malcolm, and Dewey turn their group study session into a mock quiz-show format.
4. When choosing a topic for her research paper, Nancy picks something she will enjoy reading about.

Three of the following students are exhibiting emotional regulation as it relates to their self-regulation of motivation. Which is not?
1. Jennifer is studying for an important final exam. She is anxious about the exam, but puts her anxious thoughts out of her head to focus on studying.
2. When Logan received a low score on a quiz, he thought to himself, “I really need to study harder for the next quiz”.
3. When Max received a low score on a written assignment he was only upset for a few hours and then thought to himself, “the next assignment is on my favorite book, so I will do well”.
4. Paula does not like math and never gets upset when she gets a bad grade on a math test.

When Scott was first learning how to write, he wrote quickly and sloppily, without regard for how his papers looked. But his teachers praised him regularly for writing carefully and legibly, and eventually he began to pride himself on his neat and careful handwriting. This transition can best be described as:
1. acquiring an external locus of control
2. developing internalized motivation
3. developing situational interest
4. developing extrinsic motivation

Rosamie does her homework primarily to gain her teacher’s approval. She has little internal desire to do her homework, although she does feel slight twinges of guilt when she fails to get an assignment done on time. If we consider the sequence that Deci and Ryan have described for the development of internalized motivation, Rosamie appears to be showing:
1. external regulation
2. introjection
3. identification
4. integration

Three of the following conditions appear to be important for the development of a learner’s internalized motivation. Which one of the following is probably not an important condition for internalized motivation to develop?
1. Important people in the learner’s life have expectations for his or her behavior and will impose consequences for inappropriate behavior.
2. The learner is capable of abstract thought; from a Piagetian perspective, the learner has advanced to the formal operations stage.
3. The learner has some autonomy in terms of choosing how to act in various situations.
4. The learner feels the warmth and support of important people in his or her environment.

Three of the following illustrate a product goal toward which learners might strive. Which one illustrates a process goal?
1. Trying to get one’s form right in serving a tennis ball
2. Trying to earn scores of 95% or higher on weekly spelling tests
3. Trying to get an editorial published in the local newspaper
4. Trying to win a race

The textbook recommends that teachers encourage students to set and work toward proximal goals. Which one of the following illustrates a proximal goal?
1. Becoming a reporter for a national news channel such as CNN
2. Maintaining a 4.0 GPA throughout the high school years
3. Learning the symbols for all the elements in a chemistry class
4. Shooting for admission to a local community college rather than a prestigious and highly selective private college

Which of the following epistemic belief systems would lead to mastery goals rather than performance goals?
1. “ Knowledge is an accumulation of unrelated facts”
2. “Facts are indisputable”
3. “All experts within a field agree on all issues and topics”
4. “Knowledge involves interconnected ideas”

In which one of the following situations does a teacher’s behavior reflect low expectations for a student’s classroom performance?
1. Littlefield assigns Owen a difficult math problem.
2. Oya frequently engages René in conversation before class.
3. Ingalls rarely gives Joseph any feedback about his performance.
4. Montoya gives Mei-Yau many opportunities to answer questions in class.

Richardson does not expect much of his students from a poor, inner-city neighborhood. Given what we know about the effects of teacher expectations, which outcome is most likely?
1. His students are likely to learn information in a rote rather than meaningful manner.
2. His students are likely to develop more positive self-concepts than they would otherwise.
3. His students are more likely to develop a realistic understanding of their own strengths and weaknesses than they would otherwise.
4. His students are likely to achieve at a lower level than they would otherwise.

Considering research regarding when the effects teacher-expectation are most likely to occur, which teachers should be most careful to communicate high expectations for students’ performance?
1. First and second grade teachers
2. Third and fourth grade teachers
3. Teachers of students who are beginning their second year of high school
4. Teachers of students who are finishing their final year of high school

Three of the following strategies are consistent with the textbook’s recommendations for forming expectations and attributions for student performance. Which one is not consistent with the textbook’s recommendations?
1. Assume that every student has one or more areas of strength.
2. Communicate the belief that learning more effective strategies may help students perform more successfully.
3. Depend primarily on informal, subjective impressions to assess students’ achievement.
4. Keep in mind that teachers can make a significant difference in students’ lives.

Eileen is reluctant to go out for the school soccer team. We want to enhance her self-confidence about becoming a successful soccer player. If we consider the textbook’s recommendations for communicating optimistic attributions, the best thing we can say to Eileen is:
1. “Some people are just naturally good soccer players, and I’ve seen signs that you’re probably one of them.”
2. “You have some natural athletic ability, and learning and practicing new techniques will make you even better.”
3. “Skill in soccer is totally a function of how much time you spend working at the game.”
4. “The game of soccer is largely a matter of luck. Some days are good ones and some days are bad. You just never know how things will go.”

Three of the following statements are accurate descriptions of how competition affects motivation and affect. Which statement is not accurate?
1. On average, competition leads to more negative attitudes toward school.
2. People in a competitive situation focus more on looking good than on learning something.
3. Losers in a competitive situation suffer a loss of self-efficacy.
4. Losers in a competitive situation are likely to attribute their losses to their own lack of effort.

Three of the following statements describe advantages of challenging tasks for motivation. Which statement does not accurately describe the motivational effects of a challenge?
1. Although challenges promote little or no intrinsic motivation, they promote considerable extrinsic motivation.
2. Challenging tasks are more interesting.
3. Success on challenging tasks enhances self-efficacy.
4. Success on challenging tasks cannot easily be attributed to luck or other outside factors.

Essay Questions

The textbook describes a number of cognitive factors affecting motivation. Briefly describe each of the following factors, giving a concrete example and explaining how you might promote it in a classroom or other applied setting.
1. Personal interest
2. Situational interest
3. Expectancy
4. Value
5. Mastery goal

In its discussion of motivation, the textbook describes mastery goals, performance-approach goals, and performance-avoidance goals.
1. In a short paragraph, explain how these three types of goals are different.
2. Describe four ways in which students with mastery goals and those with performance goals (especially those with performance-avoidance goals) are likely to think and/or act differently.
3. List three strategies you might use to promote mastery goals. Illustrate each one with a concrete example of something you might do.

Perspectives such as behaviorism and social cognitive theory show us how the consequence (reinforcement or punishment) of a particular behavior affects the extent to which the behavior is likely to appear again. Attribution theory has cast a new light on this notion, maintaining that the consequences of behavior will affect each person’s learning and future behavior differently depending on how the individual interprets those consequences. Within the context of attribution theory:
1. Explain what motivation theorists mean when they talk about attributions.
2. Explain how learners’ responses to failure are likely to be different when they attribute that failure to a controllable cause or to an uncontrollable one. Give a concrete example to illustrate your explanation.
3. Describe three specific strategies you might use to foster more productive attributions in others. In each case, use attribution theory to explain why you think the strategy should be effective.

Explain each of the following situations using what you have learned about attributions.
1. After a history of school failures, Marcus eventually stops trying to do well.
2. A fifth-grade teacher gives her class a difficult mathematics test, and many of her students fail it. She tells her class that she will give them a different test over the same material tomorrow. Many of the boys in the class say they will go home and study again. Some of the girls say that they already studied once, and it didn’t do much good, so why bother?
3. Samantha’s mother helps her study for an addition test on Tuesday and a subtraction test on Thursday. Samantha passes the Tuesday test and is quite proud of herself. She fails the Thursday test and blames her mother for not helping her enough.

People’s attributions for themselves and for others depend on a variety of factors. Describe how one’s self-attributions may be partly a function of six of the following:

Age
Situational cues
History of success and failure
Messages from others
Culture
Gender
Self-protective bias
Image management

Describe the sequence through which, according to Deci and Ryan, motivation may become increasingly internalized over time. Use a concrete example to illustrate your discussion.

Many principles of motivation can be summed up with the mnemonic “TARGETS”: task, autonomy, recognition, grouping, evaluation, time, and social support. In seven paragraphs, describe seven strategies—one each related to each of the seven TARGETS variables—you might use to motivate students in a classroom. Illustrate each strategy with a specific, concrete example of what you might do.

CHAPTERS 1-15

INTEGRATIVE ESSAY QUESTIONS

Compare the behaviorist and cognitive approaches to learning, identifying at least four differences between these two approaches.

Choose either an educational or a therapeutic setting. Identify three implications of each of these perspectives—behaviorism, social cognitive theory, and cognitive psychology—for the setting you have selected.

In each of the following situations, a person is learning through either reinforcement or punishment. Classify each situation as involving one of these six consequences: positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, vicarious reinforcement, Punishment I, Punishment II, or vicarious punishment. Then explain why you chose the answer you did. (The six situations may or may not encompass all six types of consequences just listed.)
1. Karen always does her homework assignments as soon as she gets them so she won’t have to worry about them anymore.
2. Because John was caught cheating on an exam, he was removed from the basketball team. John has stopped cheating on exams.
3. Ralph turns in his science project a week late. The only reason he did his project at all is because he wanted his mother to stop nagging him about it.
4. Mary sees her friend Judy get special privileges when she talks very sweetly to the teacher. As a result, Mary begins to sweet-talk the teacher as well.
5. Lisa and Fran are giggling together in the back of the classroom. Their teacher scowls at them. They are embarrassed and shut up.
6. A single mother of three rowdy children finds that, by yelling at her children frequently, they will leave her alone and not bother her with problems anymore. (Focus on what is happening to the mother.)

Reinforcement plays a major role in both operant conditioning and social cognitive theory. Identify two ways in which the role of reinforcement is different in the two perspectives.

Explain the difference between rote learning and meaningful learning from the perspective of contemporary cognitive psychology. Now distinguish between the two forms of learning in terms of the following:
1. Which one leads to faster storage in long-term memory, and why?
2. Which one leads to faster retrieval from long-term memory, and why?
3. Which one promotes better transfer and problem solving, and why?

Many learning theorists propose that elaboration sometimes occurs in learning.
1. Define what they mean by the term elaboration, and give a concrete example to illustrate it.
2. Explain:
  1. Why theorists recommend that learners elaborate as much as possible
  2. How schemas and scripts are often involved in elaboration

Why different people may elaborate differently on the same information

Why elaboration sometimes leads to the storage of inaccurate information

Describe what cognitive psychologists mean by the process of construction. Illustrate your explanation with three examples, one related to each of the following:
1. Perception
2. Long-term memory storage
3. Long-term memory retrieval

You are hired to teach a struggling student (we’ll call her Joyce) more effective study skills. Describe six different strategies that you will teach Joyce so that she can study and learn more effectively. Include at least one strategy for helping Joyce learn new concepts as she studies and at least one strategy that will enable her to transfer what she is learning to new situations.

Motivation and cognition frequently interact in their effects on learning and performance. Describe at least two different ways in which motivation affects cognition and at least two different ways in which cognition affects motivation. Give concrete examples to illustrate your discussion.

Describe the effects of extrinsic reinforcement from these four perspectives:

Operant conditioning
Drive reduction
Self-determination
Attributions

Explain how the four perspectives are similar and different with respect to reinforcement’s effects.

Describe the benefits of a challenge with respect to:
1. Self-efficacy
2. Conceptual change
3. Development of learning and study strategies
4. Motivation

One task of classroom teachers is classroom management: They must create and maintain an environment conducive to all students’ learning. Describe at least one classroom management strategy that can be derived from each of the following perspectives:
1. Operant conditioning
2. Social cognitive theory
3. Maslow’s hierarchy of needs
4. Self-determination

Give a concrete example to illustrate each strategy.

Margot is a second grader who seems to have little or no motivation to learn in the classroom; as her teacher, you have noticed that she doesn’t put much effort into her assignments. Instead, she talks incessantly to the students around her during independent seatwork time. Using at least five of the concepts listed below, describe five different strategies you might use to help Margot improve her academic performance. For each strategy, be specific and concrete about what you would do.

Intrinsic motivation
Shaping
Secondary reinforcement
Vicarious reinforcement
Premack principle
Self-monitoring
Self-imposed contingency
Time-out

Chapter 1 Answer Key

Multiple Choice Questions

Chapter 2 Answer Key

Multiple Choice Questions

Chapter 3 Answer Key

Multiple Choice Questions

Chapter 4 Answer Key

Multiple Choice Questions

Chapter 5 Answer Key

Multiple Choice Questions

Chapter 6 Answer Key

Multiple Choice Questions

Chapter 7 Answer Key

Multiple Choice Questions

Chapter 8 Answer Key

Multiple Choice Questions

Chapter 9 Answer Key

Multiple Choice Questions

Chapter 10 Answer Key

Multiple Choice Questions

Chapter 10 Answer Key

Essay Questions

There are a number of possible answers to this question. Following are five examples: (1) Infants are more competent than Piaget theorized. For example, infants show evidence of object permanence at 2.5 months of age. (2) Piaget may have underestimated elementary school children’s cognitive abilities. For example, second graders show some understanding of proportions. (3) Piaget may have overestimated adolescents’ cognitive abilities. For example, only a small portion of adolescents and perhaps even adults use formal operational thinking. (4) Training and specific experiences (e.g., formal education) can help children acquire cognitive abilities earlier than Piaget predicted. For example, school aged children can solve problems that use formal operational thinking if they are taught relevant problem solving strategies. (5) Cognitive development and children’s progression through Piaget’s stages depends on the cultural climate of the individual’s development. For example, in many other non-Western cultures, conservation abilities appear later than in western cultures.

Chapter 11 Answer Key

Multiple Choice Questions

Chapter 12 Answer Key

Multiple Choice Questions

Chapter 13 Answer Key

Multiple Choice Questions

Chapter 14 Answer Key

Multiple Choice Questions

Chapter 15 Answer Key

Multiple Choice Questions

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