Introduction to Learning And Behavior 4th Edition By Russell A. Powell – Test Bank

 

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CHAPTER 5: Classical Conditioning:

                          Underlying Processes and Practical Applications

 

Chapter Outline

Underlying Processes in Classical Conditioning

S-S Versus S-R Learning

Stimulus-Substitution Versus Preparatory-Response Theory

Compensatory-Response Model

Rescorla-Wagner Theory

Practical Applications of Classical Conditioning

Understanding Phobias

Treating Phobias

Aversion Therapy for Eliminating Problem Behaviors

Medical Applications of Classical Conditioning

 

Explanation of Opening Scenario

Estella should be concerned. In keeping with the compensatory-response theory of conditioning, because Juan had no awareness that he was drinking alcohol (meaning that this type of alcohol-related cue was absent), he may have experienced little in the way of conditioned compensatory processes to counteract the effects of the alcohol. This means that the alcohol Juan drank may have had a much stronger effect on him than if he had been aware of the alcohol. (Other cues, however, may have remained. For example, in Juan’s past experience, did punch typically contain alcohol and were picnics usually associated with drinking? If so, then compensatory processes to the alcohol may have automatically been elicited by these cues, despite his belief that the punch was nonalcoholic.)

 

 

Dr. Dee Assignment (See Chapter 1 in this manual for a sample set of instructions.)

 

1. Dear Dr. Dee,

I’m still attracted to my old girlfriend, even though I know she’s no good for me. What can I do to get over her?

                                                                                                Still a sucker

 

1. Dear Dr. Dee,

Although I’ve always been a bit fearful of getting too close to men, it seems like this has gotten much worse lately. But I don’t understand why. Other than the fact that I’ve been rather ill over the past few months, nothing else has changed in my life. What gives?

                                                                                                Mandy Mono

 

Relevant concepts:

1. He could try some aversive conditioning on himself, including covert conditioning, in which he attempts to associate her memory with unpleasant stimuli (p 209). On the other hand, if his reactions are a result of ‘withdrawal’ from the relationship, then eventually his response will extinguish (p 191).

 

1. A process of selective sensitization (p 200) brought on by her illness could account for the sudden exacerbation of her relationship fears.

 

Internet Resources

 

Rescorla Wagner Model: http://users.ipfw.edu/abbott/314/Rescorla2.htm

At this site, you will find a more involved presentation of the Rescorla-Wagner model than what is presented in the book.

 

“Conditioned Emotional Reactions” by John B. Watson and Rosalie Rayner (1920): http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Watson/emotion.htm

This is the famous article describing the process of fear conditioning in Little Albert. (From York University Classics in the History of Psychology.)

 

“A Laboratory Study of Fear: The Case of Peter” by Mary Cover Jones (1924):

http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Jones/

The original article on the use of counterconditioning to treat a phobia in a young boy. (From York University Classics in the History of Psychology.) See also introduction below.

 

Introduction to “A Laboratory Study of Fear: The Case of Peter” by Mary Cover Jones: (1924) http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Jones/intro.htm

An introduction to Jones’s classic study, written by Alexandra Rutherford of York University. (From York University Classics in the History of Psychology.)

 

Self-administered systematic desensitization: http://www.guidetopsychology.com/sysden.htm

This site provides a guide to the self-administration of systematic desensitization.

 

 

Suggested Readings

Domjan, M. (2003). The principles of learning and behavior (5th ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.

 

Lieberman, D. A. (2000). Learning: Behavior and cognition (3rd ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.

 

Miltenberger, R. G. (1997). Behavior modification: Principles and procedures. Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole.

 

Pavlov, I. P. (1941). Conditioned reflexes and psychiatry. (W. H. Gantt, Trans.). New York: International Publishers.

 

Rachman, S. (1977). The conditioning theory of fear-acquisition: A critical examination. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 15, 375–387.

 

Rescorla, R. A., & Wagner, A. R. (1972). A theory of Pavlovian conditioning: Variations in the effectiveness of reinforcement and nonreinforcement. In A. H. Black & W. F. Prokasy (Eds.), Classical conditioning II: Current research and theory. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts.

 

Seligman, M. E. P. (1971). Phobias and preparedness. Behavior Therapy, 2, 307–320.

 

Siegel, S. (1983). Classical conditioning, drug tolerance, and drug dependence. In R. G. Smart, F. B. Glaser, Y. Israel, H. Kalant, R. E. Popham, & W. Schmidt (Eds.), Research advances in alcohol and drug problems (Vol. 7). New York: Plenum Press.

 

 

Siegel, S. (1984). Pavlovian conditioning and heroin overdose: Reports by overdose victims. Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society, 22, 428–430.

 

Siegel, S. (2002). Explanatory mechanisms for placebo effects: Pavlovian conditioning. In H. A. Guess, A.

Kleinman, J. W. Kusek, & L. W. Engel (Eds.), The science of the placebo: Toward an interdisciplinary research agenda. New York: BMJ Books.

 

Spiegler, M. D., & Guevremont, D. C. (1998). Contemporary behavior therapy (3rd ed.). Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole.

 

Watson, J. B., & Rayner, R. (1920). Conditioned emotional reactions. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 3, 1–14.

 

Wolpe, J. (1958). Psychotherapy by reciprocal inhibition. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.

 

Wolpe, J. (1995). Reciprocal inhibition: Major agent of behavior change. In W. O’Donohue & L. Krasner (Eds.), Theories of behavior therapy: Exploring behavior change. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

 

 

Answers to Quick Quiz Items

 

Quick Quiz A

1. S-R
2. S-S
3. S-S

 

Quick Quiz B

1. stimulus-substitution
2. preparatory response
3. stimulus-substitution; false

 

Quick Quiz C

1. compensatory-response; the primary response to a drug; compensatory
2. a-process; b-process
3. Needle: effect of heroin (drop in BP) à increase in BP

NS                US                                                    UR

 

Needle à increase in BP

CS               CR

 

4. US; UR
5. US; UR
6. Tone: increase in HR à decrease in HR

NS                 US                           UR

 

Tone à decrease in HR

CS                 CR

 

 

 

 

 

 

Quick Quiz D

1. stronger; compensatory
2. exposure; extinction
3. higher
4. increased
5. less

 

 

Quick Quiz E

1. US; CSs
2. more
3. most
4. CS
5. 10
6. decrease; overexpectation

 

Quick Quiz F

1. overgeneralization
2. neutral; unconditioned
3. unconditioned; conditioned
4. only one
5. weaker
6. absent; weak

 

Quick Quiz G

1. unconditioned; unconditioned; conditioned; conditioned
2. temperament; does
3. preparedness
4. temperament
5. preparedness

 

Quick Quiz H

1. more
2. incubation; stronger; extinction
3. US; more; US; observational learning; verbally
4. selective sensitization; unrelated

 

Quick Quiz I

1. counterconditioning; reciprocal inhibition; incompatible; inhibits
2. food; systematic desensitization; relaxation
3. training in relaxation; creation of a fear hierarchy; pairing each item in the hierarchy with relaxation
4. in vivo desensitization; generalize
5. few; specific; does not
6. is not; severe

 

Quick Quiz J

1. blocked; extinguish
2. imaginal; in vivo
3. long
4. exposure-based
5. systematic desensitization; flooding; participant modeling

 

 

 

 

Quick Quiz K

1. aversion
2. nausea; emetic
3. rapid smoking
4. more
5. imaginal; covert

 

Quick Quiz L

1. dog: dander —> asthma

NS₁     US                 UR

dog —> asthma

CS₁           CR

food dish: dog —> asthma

NS₂       CS₁           CR

food dish —> asthma

CS₂                 CR

2. Flavored water: Drug —> Immunosuppression

NS             US                       UR

Flavored water —> Immunosuppression

CS                               CR

3. following; reduce; extinction

 

 

Answers to Study Question Items: See short-answer test items in the test bank.

Test Bank for Chapter 5

 

Underlying Processes in Classical Conditioning

S-R versus S-S Learning

 

1. According to the S-R model of conditioning, the
   1. NS becomes associated with the US.
   2. the CR becomes associated with the US.
   3. the UR becomes associated with the NS.
   4. the NR becomes associated with the CS.
      • C 175

 

2. According to the S-R model of conditioning, the CS should elicit
   1. a preparatory response.
   2. an anticipatory response.
   3. the same response as the UR.
   4. a different response from the UR.
      • C 175       QZ

 

3. According to the S-S model of conditioning,
   1. the NS becomes associated with the US.
   2. the CR becomes associated with the US.
   3. the UR becomes associated with the NS.
   4. the CR becomes associated with the CS.
      • A  175

 

 

 

4. According to the S-S model of conditioning, the CS should elicit
   1. a response that is different from the UR.
   2. a response that is identical to the UR.
   3. a response that is similar to the UR.
   4. a response that is somehow related to the US.
      • D 175       WWW

 

5. Suzie once encountered a snake in the woods near town, and as a result developed a strong fear of those woods. Later, however, she learned that there are no snakes in those woods, and that what she thought was a snake must have instead been a branch lying on the ground. As a result, she immediately lost her fear of the woods. This suggests that Suzie’s fear of the woods must have been based on an ____ association.
   1. S-R
   2. S-S
   3. R-S
   4. R-R
      • B 175

 

6. Suzie once encountered a snake in the woods near town, and as a result developed a strong fear of those woods. Later, however, she learned that there are no snakes in those woods, and that what she thought was a snake must have instead been a branch lying on the ground. If her fear reaction was based on an ____ association, then her fear of the woods should now ____.
   1. S-S; remain unchanged
   2. S-R; decrease
   3. S-R; remain unchanged
   4. both a and b are true
      • C 175       MD

 

Stimulus-Substitution versus Preparatory-Response Theory

 

7. According to Pavlov’s stimulus-substitution theory, the ____ acts as a substitute for the ____.
   1. CS; NS
   2. CS; US
   3. US; CS
   4. NS; US
      • B 176-177

 

8. According to Pavlov’s stimulus-substitution theory, the dog salivates to the sound of a metronome because
   1. the metronome acts as a substitute for the food.
   2. the food acts as a substitute for the metronome.
   3. the dog anticipates that it will soon receive food.
   4. the dog has become sensitized to the metronome.
      • A 176-177

 

9. According to ____ theory, the CR should be quite similar to the UR.
   1. stimulus-stimulus
   2. stimulus-substitution
   3. Rescorla-Wagner
   4. preparatory response
      • B 176-177               FN

 

 

 

 

 

 

10. Pavlov’s stimulus-substitution theory is an example of a(n)
    1. S-S model.
    2. S-R model.
    3. compensatory-response model.
    4. preparatory response model.
       • A 176-177

 

11. A man with a shoe fetish spends considerable time obtaining women’s shoes. This behavior is most easily explained by which theory of conditioning?
    1. compensatory response theory
    2. preparatory response theory
    3. stimulus-substitution
    4. compensatory-substitution theory
       • C 176-177                 QZ

 

12. Pavlov believed that the process of pairing an NS with a US resulted in the formation of a neural connection between
    1. different reflex arcs within the spinal cord.
    2. different areas in the cortex that are activated by each type of stimulus.
    3. cortex and thalamus.
    4. sensory and motor regions of the cortex.
       • B 177

 

13. The major difficulty with Pavlov’s stimulus-substitution theory is that the ____ are sometimes quite ____.
    1. CR and UR; similar
    2. CR and UR; different
    3. CS and US; similar
    4. CS and US; different
       • B 178

 

14. According to the preparatory-response theory of conditioning, the purpose of the ____ is to enable the organism to get ready for the ____.
    1. NS; US
    2. CR; US
    3. UR; US
    4. CR; CS
       • B 178

 

15. The fact that a rat’s fear response to an aversive CS is likely to be quite ____ its response to the aversive US is best explained by ____.
    1. similar to; opponent process theory
    2. different from; the S-R theory
    3. different from, preparatory response theory
    4. similar to; stimulus-substitution theory
       • C 178       QZ

 

16. Classical conditioning of compensatory responses provides evidence for which of the following theories of conditioning?
    1. R-S
    2. S-R
    3. stimulus-substitution theory
    4. preparatory-response theory
       • D 178         WWW

 

 

17. In support of the preparatory-response theory of conditioning,
    1. the CS is usually quite different from the US.
    2. the CS is often quite similar to the US.
    3. the CR and UR are often quite similar.
    4. the CR can sometimes be quite different from the UR.
       • D 178

 

 

Compensatory-Response Model

 

18. According to the compensatory-response model of drug tolerance, in a conditioning trial in which cues are paired with drug administration, the US is ______________ and the UR is ________________.
    1. the primary effect of the drug on the body; the compensatory response to the primary effect
    2. the sight of the drug; the physiological reaction to the drug
    3. the b-process; the a-process
    4. the compensatory response to the drug; the primary drug effect

>     A     179

 

19. If the primary effect of a drug is to increase heart rate, the UR in a drug conditioning trial is
    1. decrease in heart rate.
    2. increase in heart rate.
    3. a placebo effect.
    4. a further increase in heart rate.

>     A     179

 

20. One of the primary effects of amphetamine is an increase in heart rate. According to the compensatory-response model, in a drug conditioning trial the US would be ______________ and the UR would be _______________.
    1. decrease in heart rate; increase in heart rate
    2. increase in heart rate; increase in heart rate
    3. increase in heart rate; decrease in heart rate
    4. decrease in heart rate; decrease in heart rate

>     C     179

 

21. The average person would likely become most intoxicated by drinking alcohol
    1. in a favorite lounge or bar.
    2. at a loud, noisy party.
    3. at a small, quiet party.
    4. while taking a shower.
       • D 182

 

22. Given that each drink contains the same amount of alcohol and that you drink each drink at the same rate, you will likely become most drunk if you are drinking a(n) ____ drink.
    1. sweet
    2. bitter
    3. familiar
    4. unfamiliar
       • D 182

 

 

 

 

 

 

23. According to the compensatory-response model of conditioning (and assuming that it applies to situations such as these), a couple that has been married for many years would be most aroused if they made love
    1. in a brightly colored hotel room.
    2. in a strange hotel room.
    3. in their bedroom.
    4. during a hangover from alcohol.
       • B 182         WWW    MD

 

24. According to the compensatory-response model of conditioning, if a certain drug has a tendency to increase blood pressure, then just being in an environment associated with taking the drug may
    1. decrease blood pressure.
    2. stabilize blood pressure.
    3. further increase blood pressure.
    4. cause wide fluctuations in blood pressure.
       • A 182

 

25. The compensatory-response model of conditioning predicts that it will be easier for someone to quit smoking
    3. in a smoking-related environment.
    4. in an environment not related to smoking.
       • D 182       FN

 

26. According to the compensatory-response model of conditioning (and assuming that it is relevant to relationships), it would be easier to go through a marriage break-up
    1. if you were married for a long time.
    2. while drunk.
    3. if you moved to a different apartment from where you had lived with your former partner.
    4. if you stayed in the same apartment that you had lived in with your partner.
       • C 182

 

27. In contradiction to the compensatory-response model of conditioning, the CSs for some drugs elicit reactions that
    1. mimic the effect of the drug.
    2. reduce the effect of the drug.
    3. are the opposite of the effect of the drug.
    4. both b and c.
       • A 183

 

And Furthermore: Conditioned Compensatory Responses and Drug Overdose

 

28. In keeping with the ____ model of conditioning, many drug fatalities occur when the person injects a normal dosage of the drug in a(n) ____ environment.
    1. S-S; familiar
    2. compensatory-response; unfamiliar
    3. compensatory-response; familiar
    4. S-R; unfamiliar
       • B 183

 

 

 

 

 

29. There are multiple reports of drug overdoses where the individual overdoses on a normal dose of the drug, but in a novel place. As a result of the novel situation, the user’s tolerance was reduced. According to the compensatory-response model, which of the following was missing from the conditioning scenario?
    1. CS
    2. CR
    3. US
    4. both a and b

>     D     183

 

30. In keeping with the compensatory-response model of conditioning, many drug fatalities occur when the addict injects a(n) ____ dosage of the drug in a setting that is ____ to drug use.
    1. normal; strongly related
    2. unusually large; unrelated
    3. normal; unrelated
    4. unusually large; strongly related
       • C 183       QZ

 

Rescorla-Wagner Theory

 

31. According to ____ theory, a given US can support only so much conditioning.
    1. Rescorla-Wagner
    2. opponent process
    3. preparatory response
    4. compensatory response
       • A 185

 

32. According to the Rescorla-Wagner theory, a given US
    1. compensates for the effect of the CS.
    2. can support only so much conditioning.
    3. often has unpredictable effects.
    4. can support unlimited amounts of conditioning.
       • B 185

 

33. According to Freud’s notions of psychic energy, the investment of more energy in the id (the instinctual component of personality) means that less energy is available for the ego (the rational component of personality). This model is analogous to which theory of classical conditioning?
    1. preparatory-response theory
    2. stimulus-substitution theory
    3. Rescorla-Wagner theory
    4. Rescorla-Epling theory
       • C 185

 

34. According to the Rescorla-Wagner theory, the amount of conditioning that occurs
    1. is unlimited.
    2. is unaffected by the number of CSs.
    3. is limited and must be distributed among the various CSs available.
    4. both a and b
       • C 185

 

 

 

 

 

 

35. According to the Rescorla-Wagner theory, if a bell and a light are simultaneously associated with shock, then the amount of fear elicited by the bell will be
    1. the same as that elicited by the light.
    2. different from that elicited by the light.
    3. unaffected by the amount of conditioning that occurs to the light.
    4. affected by the amount of conditioning that occurs to the light.
       • D 185

 

36. Suppose a US supports a maximum associative value of 10. According to the Rescorla-Wagner theory, if one CS in a compound stimulus has acquired 7 units of associative value, the other CS will at most have acquired ____ units of associative value.
    1. 3
    2. 7
    3. 10
    4. 17
       • A 187

 

37. Suppose a US supports a maximum associative value of 30. According to the Rescorla-Wagner theory, if one CS in a compound stimulus has acquired 10 units of associative value, then the other CS will at most have acquired ____ units of associative value.
    1. 15
    2. 30
    3. 10
    4. 20
       • D 187       QZ

 

38. A compound stimulus consists of a buzzer and a light flash, each of which has 0 units of associative value. This compound stimulus is then repeatedly paired with a sweet drink that can support a maximum associative value of 15 units. Following these pairings, the buzzer has acquired 14 units of associative value. This means that the light flash has at most acquired ____ units of associative value, which is a demonstration of ____.
    1. 1; overshadowing
    2. 1; blocking
    3. 15; simple conditioning
    4. 14; the overexpectation effect
       • A 187       FN

 

39. According to the Rescorla-Wagner theory of conditioning, blocking occurs because
    1. the US has already taken up most of the available associative strength.
    2. familiar stimuli are more difficult to condition.
    3. the CS gathers more associative strength than the US.
    4. the CS has already taken up most of the available associative strength.
       • D 187

 

40. A compound stimulus consists of a click, which already has 15 units of associative value, and a scent, which has 0 units of associative value. This compound stimulus is then paired with a shock that can support a maximum associative value of 15 units. Following these pairings, the scent will likely have ____ units of associative value, which is a demonstration of ____.
    1. 0; overshadowing
    2. 5; the overexpectation effect
    3. 15; overshadowing
    4. 0; blocking
       • D 187       MD

 

 

 

41. To say that a CS has high associative value is equivalent, in more cognitive terms, to saying that
    1. the animal expects that the CS will be followed by the US.
    2. the CS is a good predictor of the US.
    3. the CS is a good substitute for the US.
    4. both a and b
       • D 187

 

42. A click and a scent are each separately paired with a shock, and conditioned to a maximum associative value. The click and scent are then combined into a compound stimulus and subjected to further pairings with the same shock. A likely result is that the associative value of one CS will ____ while the associative value of the other CS will ____.
    1. decrease; increase
    2. decrease; also decrease
    3. remain unchanged; remain unchanged
    4. increase; increase
       • B 189

 

43. Don was equally attracted to Sasha and Dominique, whom he dated separately. Over time, he learned to become very aroused by Sasha’s style of dress and by Dominique’s perfume. Later, he struck up a relationship with Marnie, who dressed like Sasha and wore the same perfume as Dominique. According to the Rescorla-Wagner theory, the amount of arousal Don experiences from the perfume alone will likely
    3. remain the same.
    4. decrease only if the amount of arousal produced by the style of dress increases.
       • B 189         WWW

 

44. A click and a scent are separately paired with a shock, and each conditioned to the maximum associative value. The click and scent are then combined into a compound stimulus and subjected to further pairings with the shock. This is obviously an experiment on the ____ effect.
    1. blocking
    2. overexpectation
    3. overshadowing
    4. sensory preconditioning
       • B 189

 

45. An aversive blast of air has a maximum associative value of 15 units. A compound stimulus consisting of a click and a scent are repeatedly paired with the puff of air, until the asymptote of conditioning has been reached. The scent acquires 13 units of associative value. This means that the click must have acquired ______ units of associative value, which is an example of ______.
    1. 13; overshadowing
    2. 2; blocking
    3. 2; overshadowing
    4. 13; blocking
       • C 189

 

46. Selby found that as he became increasingly interested in a new girl at a school, he began to lose interest in his girlfriend. However, after he found out that this new girl was a rather nasty person, his romantic feelings for his girlfriend returned. Selby’s experience is consistent with the ____ of conditioning.
    1. stimulus-substitution theory
    2. Rescorla-Wagner theory
    3. compensatory-response model
    4. S-R model
       • B 189

 

Practical Applications of Classical Conditioning

Understanding Phobias

 

47. In general, phobias represent a process of
    4. reciprocal inhibition.
       • C 190

 

48. In the Watson and Rayner experiment with Little Albert, the US was the
    2. loud noise.
    4. Santa Claus mask.
       • B 190       QZ

 

49. In the Watson and Rayner experiment with Little Albert, the CS was the
    2. loud noise.
    3. steel bar.
    4. Santa Claus mask.
       • A 190

 

50. In the “Little Albert” experiment, loud noise is to white rat as ______ is to ______.
    1. CS; NS
    2. US; CS
    3. CS; US
    4. UR; CS
       • B 191         WWW

 

51. In the Watson and Rayner experiment with Little Albert, the rat was
    1. initially the CS.
    2. initially the NS.
    3. the US.
    4. the UR.
       • B 191

 

52. In the Watson and Rayner experiment with Little Albert, Albert’s fear of the ____ was regarded as evidence of stimulus generalization.
    2. loud noise.
    3. Santa Claus mask.
    4. steel bar.
       • C 191       FN

 

53. The limitations of Watson and Rayner’s Little Albert experiment as an example of phobic conditioning include
    1. the rat had to be repeatedly paired with the loud noise.
    2. Albert’s fear started to diminish following a rest period of several days.
    3. Albert’s fear was easily diminished by thumbsucking.
    4. all of the above
       • D 192       MD

 

 

54. Factors which suggests that Little Albert did not grow up to have a phobia of furry objects include which of the following?
    1. Little Albert had been exposed to only one pairing of the rat and the loud noise.
    2. Little Albert did not have the kind of temperament often associated with phobias.
    3. Rats are not an appropriate stimulus for phobic conditioning.
    4. Little Albert grew up in an environment in which he had a great deal of control.
       • B 192

 

And Furthermore: Little Albert: Lost or Found

 

55. Based on evidence presented by both sides, which of the following conclusions can be drawn regarding the statement that Douglas Merritte was ‘Little Albert’?
    1. It has been confirmed.
    2. It has been debunked.
    3. It is nearly certain.
    4. It is unclear.
       • D 193

 

Additional Factors in Phobic Conditioning

 

56. During the Second World War, the vast majority of people exposed to air raids developed
    1. temporary fear reactions that quickly disappeared.
    2. intense fear reactions that took several years to disappear.
    3. repressed fear reactions that never disappeared.
    4. repressed fear reactions that grew worse as years passed.
       • A 195

 

57. During the Second World War, a major predictor of whether children developed an intense fear of air raids was whether their mothers
    1. were fearful of air raids.
    2. paid attention to them for being fearful.
    3. failed to comfort them when they were fearful.
    4. were divorced.
       • A 196

 

58. If we inherit a tendency to learn fears by observation, then the display of fear by others serves as a(n) _______ for a fear response in ourselves.
    1. NS
    2. US
    3. UR
    4. CR
       • B 196         QZ

 

59. If we have an innate tendency to acquire conditioned fears through the observation of fearful reactions in others, then the look of fear in others must be functioning as a(n)
    1. conditioned stimulus.
    2. unconditioned stimulus.
    3. discriminative stimulus.
    4. neutral stimulus.
       • B 196

 

 

 

 

 

60. Temperament is an animal’s
    1. base level of emotionality.
    2. reactivity to stimulation.
    3. cognitive capacity.
    4. both a and b
       • D 196

 

61. Aaron is much more reactive to loud noises and sudden events than Kevin is. Using the terminology provided in the text, we would say that there seems to be a difference in ____ between the two children, which has probably to a large extent been ____.
    1. preparedness; learned
    2. temperament; inherited
    3. preparedness; inherited
    4. temperament; learned
       • B 196       MD

 

62. People in general more easily acquire a fear of snakes than of birds. This is an example of the effect of ______. Certain people more easily acquire a fear of snakes than do other people. This is an example of the effect of ______.
    1. preparedness; US revaluation
    2. US revaluation; preparedness
    3. temperament; preparedness
    4. preparedness; temperament
       • D 196-197 WWW

 

63. The concept of ____ refers to an animal’s inherited tendency to acquire certain kinds of fears more easily than others.
    1. temperament
    2. incubation
    3. preparedness
    4. selective sensitization
       • C 197

 

64. Valentine (1930) was unable to replicate Watson and Rayner’s results when he attempted to condition his little daughter to become fearful of some inanimate objects. This provided some of the earliest evidence for the importance of ____ in phobic development.
    1. selective sensitization
    2. incubation
    3. observational learning
    4. preparedness
       • D 197       FN

 

65. Valentine (1930) was unable to produce a phobia in his young daughter by blowing a loud whistle when she touched certain objects. He speculated that this was because
    1. the objects were ones that people are not naturally inclined to fear.
    2. the whistle wasn’t loud enough.
    3. it is difficult to condition a fear response using an auditory stimulus.
    4. his daughter was too young to be conditioned.
       • A 197

 

 

 

 

 

66. Researchers have found that monkeys can develop fear reactions through observational learning when the feared object is a ____ event.
    1. fear-relevant
    2. fear-irrelevant
    3. both a and b
    4. none of the above; observational learning does not occur in monkeys
       • A 197       QZ

 

67. Researchers found that when people were exposed to subliminally presented pictures paired with electric shock, they subsequently displayed signs of conditioned anxiety when the pictures were of
    1. flowers and toasters.
    2. snakes and spiders.
    3. both a and b
    4. neither a nor b
       • B 197

 

68. Burton grows up in an environment in which he has little control over the things that matter most to him. Paula grows up in an environment in which she experiences a great deal of control over what matters most to her. According to research evidence, which of these children will be most susceptible to acquiring a phobia?
    1. Paula
    2. Burton
    3. both would be equally susceptible
    4. unknown; these types of experiences are irrelevant to phobic development
       • B 198

 

69. The ease with which a conditioned fear response is acquired can be affected by
    2. observational learning.
    3. history of control.
    4. all of these
       • D 196-198

 

70. The process of ____ is the strengthening of a fear response through brief exposures to a feared CS.
    1. preparedness
    2. selective sensitization
    3. incubation
    4. US revaluation
       • C 199

 

71. The process of ____ is the strengthening of a conditioned fear response through ____ exposures to a feared CS.
    1. selective sensitization; prolonged
    2. incubation; prolonged
    3. selective sensitization; prolonged
    4. incubation; brief
       • D 199

 

72. After being bitten by a cat, Shawna occasionally encounters cats for brief periods of time. According to the process of ____, these encounters may ____ her fear of cats.
    1. incubation; reduce
    2. incubation; enhance
    3. selective sensitization; enhance
    4. selective sensitization; reduce
       • B 199       MD

 

73. After little Arlo was attacked by a crow, he would run away each time he encountered one. According to the concept of ______, this may result in a(n) ______ in his fear response.
    1. incubation; increase
    2. incubation; decrease
    3. US revaluation; increase
    4. US revaluation; decrease
       • A 199         WWW

 

74. After being stung by a bee, Antonio occasionally sees a bee which he then quickly runs away from. As a result, Antonio’s fear of bees might ____, which is an example of a process that is known as ____.
    1. decrease; incubation
    2. increase; selective sensitization
    3. increase; incubation
    4. decrease; selective sensitization
       • C 199

 

75. Heather was slightly nervous about skiing after she fell and slightly twisted her ankle. She later suffers a serious and painful leg injury in a boating accident. After she fully recovers, she is now not only quite fearful of boating but also of skiing. This is best described as an example of
    1. US revaluation.
    3. selective sensitization.
    4. • A 199

 

76. US revaluation can strengthen a phobia through
    1. direct exposure to a stronger US.
    2. observational learning.
    3. verbally transmitted information.
    4. all of these
       • D 199

 

77. Although Jolene was always slightly nervous while driving, she became extremely frightened of driving after witnessing a terrible car accident. This is best described as an example of
    1. US revaluation.
    3. selective sensitization.
    4. • A 199

 

78. After the therapist told Stan that he had been permanently damaged by the abuse he suffered as a child, he began to experience symptoms of PTSD. This may reflect a process of
    2. US revaluation.
    3. selective sensitization.
    4. stimulus generalization.
       • C 200

 

79. According to the process of ____, a person’s reactivity to a fearful event could increase during a stressful event in his or her life.
    1. US revaluation
    2. incubation
    3. selective sensitization
    4. preparedness
       • C 200

 

80. According to the process of selective sensitization, a person’s fears may become exaggerated following exposure to
    1. a US of much greater intensity.
    2. a CS of much greater intensity.
    3. an unfamiliar stimulus.
    4. a stressful event of some sort.
       • D 200

 

81. In phobic development, selective sensitization differs from US revaluation in that the event which exacerbates the person’s fear response
    1. is unrelated to the original fear conditioning.
    2. was somehow involved in the original fear conditioning.
    3. is less salient than the original CS.
    4. is more salient than the original CS.
       • A 200

 

82. Tammy used to love horror movies. One night, however, while watching “Children Shouldn’t Play with Dead Things,” she became unusually fearful. Since then, she has found that whenever she is feeling stressed at work, she has nightmares of being chased by dead people. Which of the following processes most closely describes what has happened to her?
    1. US revaluation
    2. flooding
    3. selective sensitization
    4. semantic recovery
       • C 200

 

83. During exam time, Dilbert finds that he becomes particularly fearful of going out for walks at night. This is best described as an example of
    1. US revaluation.
    2. selective sensitization.
    4. • B 200       FN

 

84. Little fears can grow into big fears through the process of
    2. US revaluation.
    3. selective sensitization.
    4. all of these
       • D 196-200

 

85. A slight fear can grow into a major phobia as a result of
    2. selective sensitization.
    3. sensory preconditioning.
    4. both a and b
       • B 200

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Treating Phobias

Systematic Desensitization

 

86. Mary Cover Jones (1924) was able to eliminate Peter’s rabbit phobia by
    1. gradually moving the rabbit closer and closer.
    2. pairing the presentation of the rabbit with cookies.
    3. both a and b
    4. neither a nor b
       • C 201

 

87. Mary Cover Jones (1924) was able to eliminate Peter’s rabbit phobia by
    1. placing the rabbit in Peter’s lap for long periods of time.
    2. pairing the presentation of the rabbit with relaxation.
    3. both a and b
    4. neither a nor b
       • D 201

 

88. Wolpe’s treatment of experimentally-induced phobias in cats was similar to Mary Cover Jones’ treatment of Peter in that Wolpe used ____ to counter the fear response.
    1. food
    2. relaxation
    3. drugs
    4. intense exercise
       • A 202

 

89. In ____, an event that elicits one type of response is associated with another event that elicits a(n) ____ response.
    1. counterconditioning; similar
    2. counterconditioning; incompatible
    3. selective sensitization; similar
    4. selective sensitization; opposite
       • B 202

 

90. The underlying process in counterconditioning is
    1. selective sensitization.
    2. sensory preconditioning.
    3. reciprocal inhibition.
    4. sensory preparedness.
       • C 202

 

91. I cannot be both angry and happy at the same time, which means that a good joke can often defuse my anger about something. This is an example of
    2. reciprocal preparedness.
    3. covert conditioning.
    4. reciprocal inhibition.
       • D 202

 

92. Ned found that if he ate cookies while thinking about his recurrent nightmare, the frequency and severity of those nightmares began to decrease. This appears to be an example of the process of
    2. reciprocal inhibition.
    3. covert conditioning.
    4. systematic desensitization.
       • B 202       MD

 

93. The three steps in systematic desensitization include
    1. creation of a hierarchy of progressively more fearful scenes.
    2. training in deep muscle relaxation.
    3. both a and b
    4. neither a nor b
       • C 203

 

94. The method of systematic desensitization involves pairing ____ with a succession of stimuli that elicit ____ levels of fear.
    1. relaxation; decreasing
    2. muscle tension; increasing
    3. relaxation; increasing
    4. muscle tension; decreasing
       • C 203       QZ

 

95. The method of ____ involves pairing relaxation with a succession of stimuli that elicit increasing levels of fear.
    1. systematic desensitization
    2. exposure and response prevention
    3. flooding
    4. implosive therapy
       • A 203

 

96. With in vivo desensitization, the phobic stimulus is presented
    2. with sudden intensity.
    3. in imaginary form.
    4. in reality.
       • D 203

 

97. With ____, there are few worries about whether the treatment effect will generalize to the real world.
    1. flooding
    2. in vivo desensitization
    3. imaginary desensitization
    4. covert sensitization
       • B 203

 

98. Systematic desensitization is likely to be effective with
    1. a person who is fearful of crowds.
    2. a person who is fearful of spiders and nothing else.
    3. a person who is fearful of many things.
    4. all of these
       • B 204

 

Flooding

 

99. A treatment method that involves prolonged exposure to a feared stimulus is
    2. systematic desensitization.
    3. in vivo
    4. reality therapy.
       • A 205

 

 

 

100. Gradual is to intense as ____ is to ____.
     1. flooding; systematic desensitization
     2. in vivo flooding; imaginal flooding
     3. systematic desensitization; flooding
     4. in vivo desensitization; imaginal desensitization
        • C 205

 

101. The basic process involved in flooding appears to be
     4. • A 205         WWW

 

102. For flooding to be effective, the period of exposure to the feared stimulus must be
     1. gradually increased.
     2. gradually decreased.
     3. relatively long.
     4. quite short.
        • C 205

 

103. Problems with flooding include
     1. the patient may become so stressed that medical complications result.
     2. the treatment might sometimes worsen a phobia.
     3. both a and b
     4. neither a nor b
        • C 206

 

104. One must be particularly cautious about using flooding therapy with a person who suffers from
     2. snake phobias.
     3. dog phobias.
     4. posttraumatic stress disorder.
        • D 206

 

Hybrid Approaches to the Treatment of Phobias

 

105. Öst’s single-session treatment procedure for phobias involves
     1. in vivo exposure to the feared stimulus.
     2. eliciting relatively intense levels of fear.
     3. encouraging the client to gradually approach the feared event.
     4. all of these
        • D 206

 

106. Öst’s single-session treatment procedure for phobias combines the ____ aspect of systematic desensitization with the ____ aspect of flooding.
     1. gradual approach; brief exposure
     2. gradual approach; prolonged exposure
     3. sudden approach; prolonged exposure
     4. brief exposure; sudden approach
        • B 206

 

 

 

 

107. Öst’s single-session treatment procedure for phobias includes a ____ component.
     1. gradual approach
     2. participant modeling
     3. prolonged exposure
     4. all of these
        • D 208

 

108. Exposure-based treatments for phobias are generally more effective when they include
     1. participant modeling.
     2. nonparticipatory modeling.
     3. very brief exposures to the aversive stimulus.
     4. covert conditioning.
        • A 208

 

And Furthermore: Was Sigmund Freud a Behavior Analyst?

 

109. Freud overcame his own fear of heights using a process similar to
     1. systematic desensitization.
     3. covert sensitization.
     4. participant modeling.
        • B 207

 

110. Freud believed that the _____ step in the treatment of a phobia should involve _____.
     1. initial; uncovering traumatic memories
     2. initial; prolonged exposure to what the person is afraid of
     3. final; prolonged exposure to what the person is afraid of
     4. both a and c
        • B 207

 

Aversion Therapy

 

111. The treatment method known as ____ involves pairing an event that is overly attractive with an unpleasant stimulus.
     1. systematic desensitization
     2. flooding
     3. aversion therapy
     4. appetitive therapy
        • C 209

 

112. Forcing yourself to play a computer game to which you are addicted until you are absolutely hate it is an example of
     1. aversion therapy.
     2. covert sensitization.
     4. implosive therapy.
        • A 209

 

113. The method of rapid smoking
     1. is a form of aversion therapy.
     2. involves taking a puff every 6-10 seconds.
     3. both a and b
     4. neither a nor b
        • C 209

 

114. Aversion therapy for alcoholism often involves
     1. the use of an emetic.
     2. pairing alcohol ingestion with nausea.
     3. pairing alcohol ingestion with relaxation.
     4. both a and b
        • D 209

 

115. Aversion therapy for alcoholism often involves
     1. the use of an enema.
     2. pairing alcohol ingestion with relaxation.
     3. pairing alcohol ingestion with nausea.
     4. both a and b
        • C 209

 

116. In general, for both smoking and alcoholism, ____ treatments are more effective than ____ treatments.
     1. shock-based; nausea-based
     2. nausea-based; shock-based
     3. flooding; covert sensitization
     4. desensitization; sensitization
        • B 209

 

117. Aversion therapy has been used to treat
     1. sex offenders.
     4. all of these
        • D 209

 

118. Covert sensitization involves the use of
     1. an emetic.
     2. a fear hierarchy.
     3. imaginal stimuli.
     4. all of these
        • C 210

 

119. Attempting to eliminate your attraction to a former partner by imagining him or her covered in vomit is an example of
     1. imaginal desensitization.
     2. in vivo
     3. systematic sensitization.
     4. covert sensitization.
        • D 210       MD

 

120. In order to overcome her addiction to hamburgers, Sheila imagines that the meat contains ground cockroaches. What therapeutic technique is she attempting to use?
     1. flooding
     2. covert conditioning
     3. desensitization
     4. in vivo aversive conditioning
        • B 210         WWW

 

 

 

 

121. Developing an aversion to lettuce and tomato sandwiches after hearing a story about someone who once found a spider in such a sandwich is analogous to the treatment procedure known as
     1. covert sensitization.
     2. imaginal desensitization.
     3. imaginal flooding.
     4. covert flooding.
        • A 210       FN

 

Medical Applications

 

122. If a person displays an allergic reaction to an artificial flower, the allergic reaction is most likely a
     4. • C 211

 

123. Research revealed that patients who received chemotherapy in a hospital setting subsequently experienced a(n) ____ immune response when they again visited the hospital. In this example, the ____ would be classified as the US.
     1. enhanced; hospital
     2. suppressed; hospital
     3. enhanced; chemotherapy
     4. suppressed; chemotherapy
        • D 211

 

124. Research revealed that patients who received chemotherapy in a hospital setting subsequently experienced a(n) ____ immune response when they again visited the hospital. In this case, the ____ would be classified as the CS.
     1. enhanced; hospital
     2. suppressed; hospital
     3. enhanced; chemotherapy
     4. suppressed; chemotherapy
        • B 211       QZ

 

125. The scent of lilacs is repeatedly paired with shots of adrenaline, which facilitates immune system activity. As a result, the scent of lilacs is likely to elicit
     1. a stress response.
     2. suppression of the immune system.
     3. enhanced functioning of the immune system.
     4. occasion setting.
        • C 212         WWW

 

126. In a placebo effect, the little white pill functions as the _____ while the drug within it functions as the _____.
     1. US; CS
     2. UR; CR
     3. CS; US
     4. CR; UR
        • C 212

 

 

 

 

 

 

127. Evidence that classical conditioning often underlies placebo effects is the fact that
     1. the effects are stronger following a period of treatment with the real drug.
     2. repeated administration of the placebo by itself strengthens its effectiveness.
     3. both a and b
     4. neither a nor b
        • A 212

 

And Furthermore: Classical Conditioning, Gulf War Syndrome, and Multiple Chemical Sensitivity

 

128. Ferguson and Cassaday (1999) speculated that the symptoms of Gulf War Syndrome are actually
     1. unconditioned responses to stimuli associated with the war.
     2. conditioned responses to stimuli associated with the war.
     3. the result of a viral infection.
     4. purely imaginary.
        • B 213

 

129. It has been argued by Ferguson and Cassaday (1999) that the symptoms of Gulf War Syndrome are actually
     1. CRs elicited by stimuli encountered during the Gulf War.
     2. URs elicited by stimuli encountered during the Gulf War.
     3. hysterical in origin.
     4. a symptom of posttraumatic stress disorder.
        • A 213

 

130. It has been argued by Ferguson and Cassaday (1999) that the symptoms of Gulf War Syndrome are actually
     1. classically conditioned responses.
     2. the result of covert sensitization.
     3. a symptom of posttraumatic stress disorder.
     4. all of these
        • A 213

 

131. It has been hypothesized that the symptoms of multiple chemical sensitivity are actually _____ resulting from a process of stimulus _____.
     1. URs; discrimination
     2. CRs; generalization
     3. URs; generalization
     4. CRs; discrimination
        • B 213

 

132. It has been proposed that in multiple chemical sensitivity, the toxic substance to which the person was initially exposed functions as a _____ while the _____ of the substance functions as a _____.
     1. US; appearance; CS
     2. CS; appearance; US
     3. US; odor; CS
     4. CS; odor; US
        • C 213

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Fill-in-the-Blank Items

Most of these items are taken from or are very similar to the end-of-chapter test items in the text; the items at the end that are marked WWW are posted on the student resource website.

 

1. The ease with which an individual can acquire a conditioned fear response may be influenced by their base level of emotionality and reactivity to stimulation, which is known as _____________________.
   • temperament

 

2. Lothar’s job has recently become quite stressful. Interestingly, he is also developing a fear of driving through rush-hour traffic. This is best described as an example of _________________________________________.
   • selective sensitization

 

3. Gina’s parents are extremely concerned about her well-being, and as a result do almost everything for her. By contrast, Sarah’s parents make sure that she does a lot of things on her own. Between the two of them, _________ may be less susceptible to the development of a phobia, insofar as a history of being able to _______________ important events in one’s environment may (reduce/increase) ______________ one’s susceptibility to acquiring a phobia.
   • Sarah; control; reduce

 

4. Traditional advice has it that if you fall off a horse, you should immediately get back on and keep riding until your fear has disappeared. This approach is similar to the therapeutic technique known as _______________. Furthermore, getting back on immediately allows no opportunity for brief exposures to the feared stimulus which could result in _____________________ of the conditioned fear response.
   • flooding; incubation

 

5. Warren begins wheezing whenever people even talk about dogs. In the terminology of classical conditioning, the talk about dogs appears to be a (use the abbreviation) _____ while the wheezing is a ______.
   • CS; CR

 

6. The ________ approach to learning views classical conditioning as a process of directly attaching a reflex response to a new stimulus.
   • S-R

 

7. Whenever I see Attila, the neighbor’s dog, I am reminded that he once bit me, which makes me quite nervous. This sequence of events fits best with an S-___ approach to classical conditioning.
   • S

 

8. According to the ___________________ theory, ________________ occurs because the CS in the compound has already picked up most of the available associative value.
   • Rescorla-Wagner; blocking

 

9. According to the ____________________ model of classical conditioning, the opponent processes elicited by a US may come to elicited by a CS.
   • compensatory-response

 

10. When Uncle Bob and Aunt Shirley were separated, they each gave Little Billy great Christmas presents, with the result that he developed strong positive feelings for both. They then resolved their difficulties and moved back together. They now give Little Billy one great present from the two of them. The ____________________ theory predicts that Little Billy’s positive feelings for each will now be weaker. This is known as the __________________________ effect.
    • Rescorla-Wagner; overexpectation

 

11. The procedure whereby a CS that elicits one type of response is associated with an event that elicits an incompatible response is called __________________________.
    • counterconditioning

 

12. The fact that a rat freezes in the presence of a CS for shock but jumps when shocked can be accounted for by the ______________________________ theory of conditioning.
    • preparatory-response

 

13. The term _________________ refers to the strengthening of a conditioned fear response as a result of (brief/prolonged) _________________ exposures to the phobic stimulus.
    • incubation; brief WWW

 

14. The process whereby relaxation inhibits the occurrence of anxiety is called ________________________.
    • reciprocal inhibition WWW

 

15. Stan was once in a car accident with his mother while he was reading a picture book on snakes. As a result, he acquired a lasting fear of snakes but not of driving in a car with his mother. This seems to be an example of _________________.
    • preparedness WWW

 

 

Short-Answer Items

Most of these items are end-of-chapter study questions from the text; those marked WWW are additional items from the student resource website.

 

1. Distinguish between S-R and S-S models of conditioning.

 

According to the S-R (stimulus-response) model of conditioning, the NS becomes directly associated with the UR, and therefore comes to elicit the same response as the UR. According to the S-S (stimulus-stimulus) model of conditioning, the NS becomes directly associated with the US, and therefore comes to elicit a response that is somehow related to the US. (175-176)

 

2. Describe stimulus-substitution theory. What is the major weakness of this theory?

 

According to Pavlov’s stimulus-substitution theory, the CS acts as a substitute for the US. The major weakness of this theory is the fact that the CR is sometimes quite different from the UR, which the theory would not have predicted. (176-178)

 

3. Describe the preparatory-response theory of conditioning.

 

According to preparatory-response theory, the purpose of the CR is to prepare the organism for the presentation of the US. (178)

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

4. Describe the compensatory-response model of conditioning. How does compensatory-response model account for drug overdoses that occur when an addict seems to have injected only a normal amount of the drug?

 

According to the compensatory-response model of classical conditioning, the compensatory after-reactions to a US may come to be elicited by a CS. A critical factor in drug overdose appears to be the setting within which the drug is administered. If an addict typically administers the drug in the presence of certain cues, those cues can become CSs that elicit compensatory reactions to the drug. An addict’s tolerance to the drug is therefore much greater in the presence of such cues than in their absence. This also means that a dosage that is well tolerated in an environment associated with drug use may be lethal in an environment not associated with drug use. (178-179, 183-184)

 

5. Describe the Rescorla-Wagner theory. Describe how the theory accounts for overshadowing and blocking.

 

The Rescorla-Wagner theory proposes that a given US can support only so much conditioning, and this amount of conditioning must be distributed among the various CSs available. Another way of saying this is that there is only so much associative value to be distributed among the various cues associated with the US. With respect to overshadowing, the theory assumes that the more salient NS within the compound picks up most of the available associative value, thereby leaving little or no associative value for the less salient NS. With respect to blocking, the theory assumes that the CS member of the compound stimulus has already picked up all of the available associative value, thereby leaving no associative value for the NS member of the compound with which it has now been paired. (185-187)

 

6. Describe the overexpectation effect and how the Rescorla-Wagner theory accounts for it.

 

Two CSs are separately conditioned to the maximum associative value that can be supported by the US. They are then presented jointly in a compound stimulus for further pairings with the US. Because the combined associative value of the compound stimulus now exceeds the total associative value that can be supported by the US, these pairings of the compound stimulus with the US will result in a weakening of the CR elicited by each CS. In other words, each CS in the compound loses some of its associative value. It is as though presenting the two CSs together leads to an “overexpectation” about what will follow. When this expectation is not fulfilled, the subject’s expectations are modified downward. (188-189)

 

7. Briefly describe the Watson and Rayner experiment with Little Albert and the results obtained.

 

Little Albert was an 11-month infant who originally displayed no fear of a white rat, but did become upset at the presentation of a loud noise. Watson and Rayner then paired the white rat with the loud noise. After a few such pairings, Albert began to display a fear response to the rat. He later displayed a fear response to other white furry objects, such as a Santa Claus mask, which suggests that the fear response had generalized to stimuli similar to the CS. (190-191)

 

8. Assuming that the look of fear in others can act as a US, diagram an example of observational learning in the acquisition of a phobia. Be sure to include the appropriate abbreviation for each component in the procedure.

With respect to observational learning, we have a tendency to develop fear reactions to stimuli that elicit fear reactions in others.

Dog: Look of fear in others —> Fear in oneself

NS                   US                                   UR

Dog —> Fear in oneself

CS                   CR

(196)

 

9. Describe how temperament and preparedness can affect the acquisition of a phobia.

 

Temperament is an individual’s base level of emotionality and reactivity to stimulation which, to a large extent, is genetically determined. Temperament seems to affect the ease with which a conditioned response can be acquired. Thus, individuals with certain temperaments may be more genetically susceptible than others to the development of conditioned fear reactions.

The concept of preparedness holds that some species are genetically prepared to learn certain kinds of associations more easily than others. Thus, animals may have an inherited predisposition to develop certain types of fears. (196-197)

 

10. Describe how selective sensitization and incubation can affect the acquisition of a phobia. Be sure that your answer clearly indicates the difference between them.

 

Selective sensitization is an increase in one’s reactivity to a potentially fearful stimulus during an unrelated stressful time in one’s life.

Incubation is the strengthening of a conditioned fear response as a result of brief exposures to the aversive CS. (198-199, 200)

 

11. What would be the likelihood of a child who had very little control over important events in her life of later acquiring a phobia (compared to a child who had more control)? Also, describe how US revaluation can affect the acquisition of a phobia.

 

The child who had little control would be more likely to acquire a phobia.

With respect to US revaluation, exposure to an aversive US of high intensity can alter the strength of response to a CS that had previously been associated with a low intensity version of the US. The person may then become more fearful of the CS even though it was never directly paired with the high intensity US. This can occur through (1) direct exposure to a US of different intensity or through indirect exposure via (2) observational learning or (3) verbally transmitted information. (198, 199-200)

 

12. What is counterconditioning? Name and define the underlying process.

 

In counterconditioning, a CS that already elicits one type of response is associated with an event that elicits an incompatible response. The underlying process is reciprocal inhibition which holds that certain responses are incompatible with each other, such that the occurrence of one response necessarily inhibits the other. (202)

 

13. Outline the three components of systematic desensitization.

 

The three components are:

1. Training in deep muscle relaxation.
2. Creation of a hierarchy of imaginary scenes that initially elicit progressively more intense levels of fear.
3. Pairing each item in the hierarchy with relaxation.

(203)

 

 

 

 

 

14. Define flooding. Be sure to mention the underlying process by which it is believed to operate. Also, what is the distinction between imaginal and in vivo versions flooding.

 

Flooding is a behavioral treatment that involves prolonged exposure to a feared stimulus, thereby providing maximal opportunity for the conditioned fear response to extinguish. In imaginal flooding, the encounter with the feared stimulus occurs in one’s imagination. In in vivo flooding, one encounters an actual version of the feared stimulus. (205-206)

 

15. Define aversion therapy. What is covert sensitization? WWW

 

Aversion therapy reduces the attractiveness of a desired event by associating it with an aversive stimulus. Covert sensitization is a type of aversion therapy carried out with the use of imaginal rather than real stimuli. (209-211)

 

16. Diagram an example of a classical conditioning procedure that results in an alteration (strengthening or weakening) of immune system functioning. Diagram an example of a classical conditioning process involved in the creation of a placebo effect. Be sure to label each component with the appropriate abbreviation.

 

Examples in the text:

Weakening:

Hospital: Chemotherapy à Immunosuppression

NS            US                                UR

 

Hospital à Immunosuppression

CS                            CR

 

Strengthening:

Sweet sherbet: Adrenaline à Increased natural killer cell activity

NS                           US                           UR

 

Sweet sherbet à  Increased natural killer cell activity

CS                                           CR

 

Placebo:

White pill: Acetylsalicylic acid à Headache removal

NS                           US                           UR

 

White pill à Headache removal

CS                           CR

(211-213)

 

17. Diagram the sequence of events that Pavlov believed occurred on a neurological level during a classically conditioned response of salivation. What informal observation of Pavlov’s seemed to support the notion of stimulus substitution theory?

 

Light —> Activates light center in cortex —> Activates food center in cortex —> Activates salivation center in cortex —> Salivation

Pavlov observed that dogs would sometimes approach the light and lick it, as though it was edible. (177)

 

18. Outline Wolpe’s versus Eysenck’s explanation for the effectiveness of systematic desensitization and the evidence in support of each. WWW

 

Wolpe assumed that systematic desensitization is a counterconditioning procedure that works through the process of reciprocal inhibition. Eysenck claimed that systematic desensitization is really just a simple matter of extinction, in which a CS is repeatedly presented in the absence of the US. Evidence for the extinction explanation comes from the fact that relaxation is not always needed for the treatment to be effective; gradual exposure to the feared stimulus is by itself often sufficient. On the other hand, in support of the counterconditioning explanation, severe phobias respond better to treatment when relaxation is included. (194-204)

 

19. Outline Öst’s single-session treatment procedure for eliminating a phobia. WWW

 

The major component of the treatment package was an in vivo exposure procedure in which clients were encouraged to approach the feared object as closely as possible, remain there until the anxiety faded away, then approach the object even more closely. This process continued until the client had approached the object closely and her reported level of fear toward the object had been reduced by 50% or more. Also, most clients were accompanied by a person (the therapist) who acted as a model to demonstrate to the client how to interact with the feared object (such as how to use a jar to capture a spider). The therapist also helped the client physically contact the feared object, say, by first touching the object while the client touched the model’s hand, then touching the object while the client also touched the object, and then gradually removing his hand while the patient continued touching the object. (206-208)