Practicing Leadership Principles And Applications 4th Edition By Shriberg - Test Bank Instant Download - Complete Test Bank With Answers Sample Questions Are Posted Below CHAPTER 5: PSYCHOLOGY I: INTELLIGENCE AND PERSONALITY INTRODUCTION GOALS AND OBJECTIVES BRIEF OUTLINE DETAILED OUTLINE ANSWERS TO “QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION AND REVIEW” MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS …
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CHAPTER 5: PSYCHOLOGY I: INTELLIGENCE AND PERSONALITY
INTRODUCTION
GOALS AND OBJECTIVES
BRIEF OUTLINE
DETAILED OUTLINE
ANSWERS TO “QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION AND REVIEW”
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS
ESSAY QUESTIONS
TEACHING ACTIVITIES
MEDIA RESOURCES
INTRODUCTION
Individuals’ intellectual and personality traits contribute significantly to their work in their chosen field. In addition, our particular life experiences affect our abilities and interests in a variety of ways. When one examines the great leaders of today and yesterday, one cannot help but be awed by the sheer range of backgrounds from which these leaders emerge. It is also astonishing to examine the ability of leaders to inspire those who follow them. An examination of psychology does not provide all the answers to these questions (only you can do that), but in this chapter we will look at two central components of the intersection of psychology and leadership—intelligence and personality. We address the age-old question of whether great leaders are born or made (the answer may surprise you) and consider some of the many theories about motivating others.
GOALS AND OBJECTIVES
BRIEF OUTLINE
DETAILED OUTLINE
What is Intelligence?
Intelligence – the ability to learn or understand or to deal with new and trying situations; the ability to manipulate one’s environment or to think abstractly as measured by objective criteria.
There is a tendency to view intelligence as something that cuts across all areas of one’s life. However, the brain is an extremely complex structure and to think of an individual as either entirely “intelligent” or “unintelligent” is not likely to be a useful distinction for you to make as a leader. More helpful would be to make the following two assumptions: 1) each individual has a particular set of intellectual strengths and weaknesses; and 2) situations often dictate performance more than global ability.
Psychometric Model
IQ: intelligence quotient- a person’s score on a standardized test designed to measure
Intelligence
There are a number of different standardized IQ tests that are commonly used in the United States. These tests are typically quite comprehensive and measure a variety of skills, such as verbal skills, non-verbal problem-solving, processing speed, and short and long-term memory.
The first modern intelligence test was created by two Frenchmen, Alfred Binet and Theodore Simon. The impetus for this test was the recognition by the Minister of Public Instruction in Paris that some schoolchildren were not learning through traditional means. The original Binet-Simon (1905) test had thirty items and no method for scoring the test. The test was expanded to 58 items in 1908 and it was in this version that the concept of a person’s overall mental level (now known as IQ) was introduced.
While Binet’s goal was to promote improved education for children who were having difficulty learning in a standard classroom, in the United States intelligence testing was often utilized for a less noble purpose. By 1911, intelligence testers, led by Henry H. Goddard, were calling for widespread intelligence testing of immigrants at Ellis Island in order to identify those who were intellectually deficient. Goddard was a promoter of something called eugenics and the results of his work were highly influential in perpetuating the belief that immigrants were less intelligent than persons born in the United States.
Eugenics – the study of methods of improving genetic qualities by selective breeding
There continues to be a misperception that one number or score can adequately label a person. Perhaps the strongest criticism of the idea of a universal measure of intelligence can be found in Stephen Jay Gould’s (1981) “The Mismeasure of Man.” In this classic work, Gould challenged the idea of reducing something as abstract as intelligence into a single number. Gould also questioned the usefulness of ranking people on constructs like intelligence that do not translate as well as other variables like height and weight do to clear and logical numerical measurements.
g and s: Spearman proposed that intelligence can be divided into two factors: s, which
are specific subfactors of intelligence and g, which can be thought of as general
intelligence. In this model, someone with a high g would be expected to do well on all intellectual tasks while uneven abilities are attributed to different s levels on specific tasks.
General intelligence – specific subfactors of intelligence such as verbal comprehension or perceptual reasoning.
Psychometrics – The branch of psychology that deals with the design, administration, and interpretation of quantitative tests for the measurement of psychological variables such as intelligence, aptitude, and personality traits.
Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences Model
In contrast to the psychometric model, where tests are generally administered in an office and where the results of these tests often lead to a global interpretation (e.g., “Bob’s IQ is in the 55th percentile”), Howard Gardner, in his classic (1983) “Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intelligences,” sought to promote a more naturalistic view of intelligence, focused on real-world skills. In his original model, he divided intelligence into seven different areas:
Later, Gardner added an eighth form of intelligence:
Naturalistic intelligence, ability to recognize and classify plants, minerals, and animals, including rocks and grass and all variety of flora and fauna.
From Gardner’s perspective, each of these forms of intelligence is of approximately equal importance, yet he notes that in U.S. society two of these forms—linguistic intelligence and logical-mathematic intelligence—tend to be given higher value in schools.
Leadership Profile: Multiple Intelligences in Practice: The Example of Simon Cowell
Despite his often bold remarks, a lot of contestants call Simon Cowell their favorite judge because he brings out the best in them, and a number of columnists ascribe the popularity of American Idol to Simon’s personality and the tension that he creates.
Simon Cowell was not always a household name that made millions of dollars for being on TV. A high school drop-out, he began his career in the mailroom of the EMI Music Publishing offices, a job that was given him by his father, who at that time was an EMI executive. Over the years Cowell started a number of record companies and some of them failed. For example, when he was 30 years old, his record company Fanfare Records went bankrupt and Cowell moved in with his parents as a result. Afterwards, Cowell joined BMG records and then S Records. This is when his career started to rise.
Even though Cowell has spent most of his life in the music business, he admits to not having any musical talents. He doesn’t play any instruments, doesn’t read music notes and has no musical education. Cowell says that his talent is in recognizing what will be the next big hit—what people will love. Even though some people might find Cowell’s remarks controversial, it is hard to deny that he has a winning personality and a very specific form of intelligence that gives the show a unique twist. Cowell believes that he is helping people by telling them the way things really are. Those who know Simon on a more personal level say that he is a very nice guy with a sweet personality. Cowell is undoubtedly a successful entrepreneur and one of the most recognizable leaders of the music industry.
Goleman’s Theory of Emotional Intelligence and Social Intelligence
Emotional intelligence: The ability to fully understand oneself and to relate well with others
Many studies have shown that when it comes to successful leadership, emotional intelligence is even more important than innate/rational intelligence. Daniel Goleman in his book, “Emotional Intelligence: Why It Can Matter More Than IQ” (1995), stated that emotional intelligence can be taught and includes the ability to: motivate oneself and persist despite frustrations; regulate one’s own moods; empathize; delay gratification; handle stress well; have verbal and nonverbal skills in sync; have self/other acceptance/tolerance; and promote “group harmony.” Goleman has argued that emotional intelligence subsumes most of what is not measured by traditional IQ tests. Goleman’s critics argue that his claims about emotional intelligence go beyond the actual data he obtained to support these claims.
Goleman, Boyatzis, and McKee (2002) assert that there are eighteen different leadership competencies that fall within four domains of emotional intelligence.
Emotional Intelligence Domain |
Leadership Competencies |
| Self-Awareness: A leader must have an accurate self-assessment of his / her strengths and weaknesses. A leader is self-confident, aware of how his/her feelings affect his/her job performance, and welcomes constructive criticism. | Emotional Self Awareness
Accurate Self Awareness Self Confidence |
| Self-Management: An emotionally intelligent leader has good self-control, is genuine, adaptable, and achievement-oriented. Such a leader stays calm and clear-headed under crisis situations, admits mistakes, and confronts unethical behavior in others, is flexible in thinking, and has high personal standards and a commitment to life-long learning. | Self-Control
Transparency Adaptability Achievement Initiative Optimism |
| Social Awareness: Leaders with emotional intelligence are empathetic and can sense the unspoken emotions in groups. They are keenly aware of and are able to navigate through organizational hierarchies and foster an open communication environment. As a leader, people pay attention to how you react to setbacks. Whether you are optimistic, energetic, angry, or rude, your reactions will trickle down to all members of the group. | Empathy
Organizational Awareness Service |
| Relationship Management: Emotionally intelligent leaders are able to inspire people and help mobilize a shared mission. They are persuasive and engaging public speakers and enjoy cultivating other people’s strengths and interests. Teamwork, collaboration, conflict management, and spending time forging close relationships outside of work to promote group harmony are of utmost importance to an emotionally intelligent leader. | Inspiration
Influence Developing Others Change Catalyst Conflict Management Teamwork and Collaboration |
Social intelligence – the ability to get along well with others and to get them to cooperate with you.
Whereas emotional intelligence tended to focus on the individual in isolation, in “Social Intelligence: The Revolutionary New Science of Human Relationships” (2006), Goleman examines how one’s interpersonal skills and relationships can have an impact on all parts of one’s life, including how long one lives! Leaders with strong social intelligence bring out the best in themselves and in others.
Robert Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory of Intelligence
Triarchic theory of intelligence: Sternberg devised a three-part theory to describe intellectual processes conducive to success on this test.
Componential subtheory: the degree of one’s ability to solve problems using internal mechanisms.
Experiential subtheory: The degree to which an individual effectively uses prior knowledge or past experience.
Contextual subtheory: the degree to which an individual’s culture or values impact their performance in real-life situations.
Sternberg’s definition of intelligence: “a mental activity directed toward purposive adaptation to, selection and shaping of, real-world environments relevant to one’s life,” which means that intelligence is how well an individual deals with environmental changes throughout their lifespan. Sternberg’s theory is comprised of three parts: componential, experiential, and practical.
Here are some examples that illustrate the distinction between these three subtheories. Many of us know people who seem to test above or below their abilities on standardized tests (think of the class valedictorian who scores below an “average” student on the SAT). Those who score above expectations likely have high componential abilities—they are able to use effective problem solving strategies. Similarly, take two persons of approximately equal intelligence and ask them to answer sports trivia questions. If one of those persons follows sports closely (and thus has high experiential knowledge) and the other does not, the sports fan is likely to do better on that task. Finally, contextual theory acknowledges that different people and different cultures have different values. Therefore, if you take two persons of equal intelligence, one raised in a highly competitive society and the other raised in a setting where cooperation is valued over competition, and then place these two people in a competitive situation, the advantage would go to the person raised in the competitive society.
In Sternberg’s writings on leadership, intelligence is not viewed as an overall measurement (as in the concept of g), nor is intelligence seen as a series of discrete skills, as in Gardner’s multiple intelligence model. Instead, Sternberg equates intelligence with success. Specifically, in his theory of successful intelligence, he states that people achieve success by recognizing and capitalizing on their personal strengths and by recognizing and either correcting or compensating for their weaknesses. Thus, successful leaders in this model possesses the intellectual skill of knowing how to put themselves in the best position to succeed, be that by either changing environments or modifying the environment they are in to bring out their talents.
Leadership Profile: Learning Disabled or World Renowned Genius? The Multiple Dimensions of Intelligence
The prospects did not look good for a young Albert Einstein. It is believed that the future internationally acclaimed physicist did not speak until age three and that by age nine he still spoke hesitantly, prompting his parents to believe that his intelligence was below average. As a teenager, Einstein failed an examination that would have allowed him to pursue a course of studies in electrical engineering and he was turned down for several positions at universities. It was only while working as a patent worker and writing on theoretical physics in his spare time that Einstein first became widely known in academic circles.
While it is not clear whether or not Einstein had a learning disability (many suspect he had), his story of having intellectual talent that may not have been apparent as a child in school but then going on to being recognized as a leader in his field is a common one. For example, George Washington, the first president of the United States, could not spell and had poor grammar usage. There are many present and past leaders in various fields that are known to or are believed to have a learning disability. This shows how certain conceptions of intelligence don’t necessarily hinder success.
Personality
Personality – The particular way an individual affects others and understands him or herself.
Psychology is the study of human behavior. Human behavior is of course a broad area, the scope of which is well beyond that of this text. What then are the most salient aspects of human behavior that apply to leadership? Certainly, one important aspect of human behavior is how it forms what we call individual personalities. Only within the past 150 years, however, has there been significant research that examines personality development over the course of the entire life span. Driven by Darwin’s theory of evolution, early personality theorists such as Freud were generally biologists and physicians who sought to understand personality development through the study of physiology.
Are Leaders Born or are they Made?
In 1869, Sir Francis Galton was among the first to assert that those qualities that make great leaders are biologically inherited. This is a notion that continues to be hotly disputed in psychology—primarily through what is known as the nature/nurture debate.
Nature versus Nurture Debate – The debate over to what degree personality characteristics and traits are affected by one’s genetics (nature) and environment (nurture).
On the “nature” side, some, like Galton and others, would assert that some individuals are simply “natural leaders.” Clearly, children are born with different personalities, and it is reasonable to assume that some personalities are more conducive to developing leadership than others. Although the fundamental characteristics ascribed to these types of leaders vary, typically the characteristics of great leaders were thought to include:
Sigmund Freud did not write about personality development in terms of leadership, but he became the most widely known personality theorist and a major articulator of a viewpoint that leaned more heavily toward the “nature” side. A biologist by training, Freud postulated that one’s personality was formed based on one’s ability during childhood to adapt to a world filled with conflict. Children were viewed as passive recipients of stimulation and maladaptive personality development was attributed to bad mothering. Thus, from this perspective, one’s core personality is formed very early on and is created via one’s physiological responses to external stimulation. Because the source of personality is so deeply rooted in physiology and early childhood experiences, the classic Freudian framework views treatment as a long process that may require the analyst to assume parental roles in order to recreate the scene of developmental roadblocks.
At the other end—the “nurture” end—of the continuum are those who follow in the tradition of John Locke, who viewed the infant’s mind as a tabula rasa (blank slate), amenable to all sorts of influences depending on the environment in which one is raised.
Tabula Rasa – a young mind not yet affected by experience (according to John Locke)
Among the leading proponents in the United States of the “nurture” perspective were John Watson and, later, B. F. Skinner. Skinner began by studying reinforcement mechanisms in animals. He discovered that when he rewarded animals for certain behaviors, those behaviors increased. Through the work of Watson, Skinner, and many others, the notion of biological determinism began to be challenged. The argument was that children’s (and to a certain extent adults’) personalities were not fixed in infancy, but rather reflected the experiences they encountered throughout their lives.
It is now very rare to find an individual who believes in a strictly “nature” or a strictly “nurture” perspective. This is due to a number of factors, most notably studies of monozygotic (identical) twins and of children who have been raised in adoptive or foster homes. Accumulating evidence supports the position that both physiology and environmental influences play important roles in human development.
However, even though there is wide consensus that both nature and nurture play a role in personality development, this does not mean that where one falls on the nature/nurture continuum is unimportant. If you are a leader and you are struggling with finding ways to get the most out of someone you are frustrated with, where you fall on the “nature/nurture” continuum likely plays a key role in the assumptions you make and the actions you take. If you fall closer to the “nurture” side, you are more likely to assume that the other person is not very amenable to change and you may start looking to replace this person with someone more “like-minded”. If you fall more on the “nature” side, however, you might assume that this person is capable of changing his/her attitudes and/or behavior to be more in line with what you desire, or perhaps that you might be capable of changing your views to accommodate this person.
Leadership Profile: John Broadus Watson: “The Father of Behaviorism,” Advertising Pioneer
A proponent of bringing “pure science” to psychology, Watson, whose professional life spanned much of the first half of the 20th century, claimed that if he were given access to a child at a very young age he could condition this child to exhibit certain personality traits. His most famous experiment was the “Little Albert” experiment, in which he conditioned a young boy to become afraid of rabbits by scaring the child each time the child was presented with a rabbit.
Credited by some as the first to bring research into advertising, Watson pioneered the notion of understanding one’s customers and their needs before attempting to sell products to that customer. Prior to Watson’s era, much of advertising focused on describing the product, not on potential customers.
While fortunately the days of making young children fearful of rabbits are long gone, the idea that individuals of all ages can be trained to change their behavior through new experiences and ideas remains very much accepted doctrine in both psychology and leadership theory.
Attitudes, Perceptions and Attributions
Attitude – a complex mental state involving beliefs and feelings and values and dispositions to act in certain ways.
Successful leadership demands an understanding of attitudes and their manifestations in an organization. The three main aspects of attitudes include affect, the emotional content of a situation; behavior, specific actions taken in response to or in anticipation of a situation; and cognitions, an individual’s thoughts or perceptions of a situation. In general, it is believed that people try to maintain a balance between these three components as they form attitudes. In some situations, the three components come into conflict and a skilled leader will consider feelings as well as behaviors in the attempt to promote positive attitudes.
We pay attention to people and objects in such a way that gives them meaning to us. That idiosyncratic aspect of perception can mean that two people can form two different impressions of the same evidence. Social perceptions have much to do with our impressions of people who are different from ourselves.
Social perceptions: these are our perceptions of other people. These are particularly salient when forming impressions of people who are different from us, as we may categorize people into more familiar terms based on limited information.
As can be seen here, our view of the world and interactions with others are shaped not only by our personality but also by our unique attitudes, perceptions, and the attributions we make in a given situation. Being aware of one’s personality as well as your particular attitudes, perceptions, and attributions are closely tied to the concept of emotional intelligence discussed earlier in the chapter. It is this self-awareness which underlies one’s ability to interact effectively with others in a work, school, or other setting.
Stereotyping occurs when we use limited information to reach a broad conclusion based on race, age, sex, religion, occupation, etc.
Our perceptions can be inaccurate for three main reasons: stereotyping, selective perception, and perceptual defense. We might negatively stereotype the person with an Italian accent by inferring connections to organized crime, or the person with a disability by assuming he or she is unable to respond to conversation. A stereotype can also be positive, such as hearing a Scandinavian’s accent and assuming the person must be a good skier. Frequent workplace stereotyping occurs with differences in age and gender. These stereotypes, when applied negatively, can be quite destructive, as in the stereotype that younger employees do not work as hard or that female employees are not as skilled as their male counterparts.
selective perception: this occurs when we only hear and see what we want to hear and see
Selective perception occurs when we hear or see only what we want to see or hear. Teenagers have marvelous powers of selective perception when they screen out parental requests. We select on the basis of our own experiences, needs, and orientations.
perceptual defense: this occurs when we distort or deny something that is too difficult to acknowledge
The third way to block perceptions is through perceptual defense. Typically, perceptual defense takes place when we distort or deny something that is too difficult to acknowledge. A common example of perceptual defense occurs when a person knows on one level that the person he/she is dating is not right for them, but continues to find reasons (maybe even irrational reasons) to stay together, ignoring the more compelling reasons to break up.
attribution: the reasons we ascribe for our behavior
Yet it is not only how we perceive people and events that affects our response to them; attribution, or the reasons we ascribe for our behavior, plays an important role as well. We interpret an event and then try to uncover its cause. Much depends on our view of ourselves and the world and seeing ourselves on a continuum between having a great deal of control over events or being powerless.
Section Summary
Our unique personalities affect our ability to lead. Whereas once it was believed that all leadership traits were inherited, modern psychological research supports a perspective that includes both biological and environmental contributors to personality development. We are born with certain dispositions toward leadership that can be aided, stunted, or otherwise altered by the experiences we have during the course of our lifetime. Every day, our personality affects our ability to lead through our perception and attitudes toward other people and situations.
ANSWERS TO “QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION AND REVIEW”
From the psychometric perspective, intelligence is something that can be measured quantitatively and these numbers can be used to make meaningful statements about a person’s abilities, either in terms of specific s factors (e.g., “Your working memory skills are above average”) or in terms of overall abilities (e.g., “your full-scale IQ falls in the average range”).
Students’ responses will vary. Should include examples of Musical intelligence,
Bodily-Kinesthetic intelligence, Spatial intelligence, Interpersonal intelligence, Intrapersonal intelligence, Linguistic intelligence, Logical-Mathematic intelligence and Naturalistic intelligence.
Examples:
Musical intelligence: Strength—playing in an orchestra
Weakness—working with word processing at an office
Bodily-Kinesthetic intelligence: Strength—playing on a football team
Weakness—counseling a student who is having family trouble
Spatial intelligence: Strength—designing a building
Weakness—understanding your feelings in reaction to a trauma
Interpersonal intelligence: Strength—facilitating a group therapy session
Weakness—reading a book
Intrapersonal intelligence: Strength—writing a book on your personal memoirs
Weakness—figuring out directions
Linguistic intelligence: Strength—writing a magazine article
Weakness—solving a math puzzle
Logical-Mathematic intelligence: Strength—figuring out the physics for building a roller coaster
Weakness—playing tennis
Naturalistic intelligence: Strength—identifying poisonous plants on a hike
Weakness—learning the trombone
This is the debate over whether one’s personality and therefore the characteristics needed to become a successful leader are present at birth (“nature”) or are developed through experience (“nurture”). Prevailing wisdom is that leaders benefit both from genetics and experience. Accumulating evidence supports the position that both physiology and environmental influences play important roles in human development. For example, in comparing prevalence rates of certain diseases in monozygotic (identical) versus dizygotic (fraternal) twins, a very common finding is that there are higher concordance (meaning both twins have the trait) rates in monozygotic twins, providing evidence for the “nature” perspective since monozygotic twins are genetically identical. However, monozygotic twins have different personality traits, which support the “nurture” side of personality development. There is wide consensus that both nature and nurture play a role in personality development.
Student responses will vary to the first portion of the question. An example of a possible answer might be: “One time I thought that my best friend was mad at me because they ignored me when they walked by and didn’t call me for a few days. Then I found out a couple of days later that her grandmother had passed away and that she had to jump on an airplane the next day to go to the funeral.”
Successful leadership demands an understanding of attitudes and their manifestations in an organization. In some situations, the three components of attitudes (emotion, behavior and cognitions) come into conflict and a skilled leader will consider feelings as well as behaviors in the attempt to promote positive attitudes. On the other hand, a leader work can be made more difficult by inaccurate perceptions. Perceptions can be inaccurate for three main reasons: stereotyping, selective perception, and perceptual defense. These three phenomena can hinder a leader’s ability to run a fair and functional organization if he or she does not recognize these cognitive limitations and setbacks.
Selective perception occurs when we hear or see only what we want to see or hear. Perceptual defense takes place when we distort or deny something that is too difficult to acknowledge. Stereotyping occurs when we use limited information to reach a broad conclusion based on race, age, sex, religion, occupation, etc.
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS
events
environmental events
Answer: c
Answer: c
Answer: d
Answer: b
Answer: a
Answer: b
Answer: c
Answer: d
Answer: b
Answer: d
ESSAY QUESTIONS
TEACHING ACTIVITY
SCENARIO: Choose a well-known company and pretend that your group is the management team for that organization. You have just given assessment to your entire staff that will determine their intelligence strength within Gardner’s theory of Multiple Intelligences. How will the information that you receive impact your management? What kinds of changes will you make to staff placement? What departments or areas of the business would benefit from having people with which strengths? Which would suffer if people possessing various weaknesses mainly occupied them? How could your service improve from the use of this knowledge about your employees? How would your profits be affected?
MEDIA RESOURCES
http://www.ithaca.edu/mathcs/LearnStyle/MyersBriggsTest.shtml.
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Original price was: $30.00.$20.00Current price is: $20.00.
Original price was: $30.00.$20.00Current price is: $20.00.
Original price was: $30.00.$20.00Current price is: $20.00.
Original price was: $30.00.$20.00Current price is: $20.00.
Original price was: $30.00.$20.00Current price is: $20.00.
