Wrightsman’s Psychology and the Legal System 8th Edition by Edith Greene – Test Bank

 

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Sample Questions Are Posted Below

 

 

Chapter 5

Crime Investigation: Witnesses

 

Questions for Class Discussion and/or Essay Examinations

 

1. DNA, in some cases, has the capability to exonerate those who have been wrongly convicted. Your text provides a few possible reasons why DNA may not help in a given case. What are these reasons? (Eyewitnesses to Crimes and Accidents, Introduction)

 

2. Discuss whether wrongly convicted and imprisoned persons should be compensated. What compensation and kinds of reparations are appropriate? (Eyewitnesses to Crimes and Accidents, Introduction)

 

3. Explain how the phenomenon of confirmation bias can affect a police investigation. (Examples of Mistaken Eyewitness Identification)

 

4. Describe the weapon focus effect. Under what conditions is the weapon focus effect most likely to occur? Discuss the concept of selective attention. (Basic Information Processing)

 

5. Psychologists divide memory into three processes: encoding, storage and retrieval. Discuss factors that can be present during each of these processes that can affect the accuracy of a memory. Provide an example of the relevant research. (Basic Information Processing)

 

6. Describe how the amount of stress (low versus high) in a witnessed event can affect memory for that event. Discuss the results of the Morgan et al. 2004 study, which examined the effects of stress on soldiers’ ability to identify their interrogators. (Basic Information Processing)

 

7. Discuss the relationship between memory recall and retention interval and the effects of longer retention intervals on the ability to recall observed events (Basic Information Processing)

 

8. Give an example of how postevent information can affect memory. (Basic Information Processing)

 

9. Define and give an example of unconscious transference. (Basic Information Processing)

 

10. What does it mean to say that you are using experimental methodology to investigate eyewitness issues? State an advantage and a disadvantage of using experimental methodology for this purpose. (Basic Information Processing)

 

11. What does it mean to say that you’re using archival analysis to investigate eyewitness issues? State an advantage and a disadvantage of using archival analysis for this purpose. (Basic Information Processing)

 

12. Define system, estimator, and postdiction variables and give an example of each. (The Variables that Affect Eyewitness Accuracy)

 

13. Discuss the other-race effect and recent actual or hypothetical examples of this phenomenon. (The Variables that Affect Eyewitness Accuracy)

 

14. How do psychologists explain the other race effect? Provide both a cognitive and social explanation. (The Variables that Affect Eyewitness Accuracy)

 

15. Comment on the relationship between eyewitness gender and the accuracy of lineup identifications. (The Variables that Affect Eyewitness Accuracy)

 

16. Describe the relationship between eyewitness age and the accuracy of lineup identifications. (The Variables that Affect Eyewitness Accuracy)

 

17. In 1999, the U.S. Department of Justice recommended new procedures for collecting eyewitness evidence that were based on psychological research. Identify the new procedures that the Justice Department recommended; for each, provide a summary of the relevant research. (Reforming Identification Procedures)

 

18. Discuss the New Jersey Supreme Court’s decision in State v. Henderson (2011) and the effects of this case on the evaluation of the reliability of eyewitness’s identification. (Reforming Identification Procedures)

 

19. What is a cognitive interview and how does it differ from the “standard” police interview? (Reforming Identification Procedures)

 

20. Discuss the effectiveness of cognitive interviews. Why are these kinds of interviews effective? (Reforming Identification Procedures)

 

21. According to Chapter 5, what instruction do researchers recommend for eyewitnesses who are viewing a lineup? (Reforming Identification Procedures)

 

22. Discuss the use of simultaneous versus sequential lineup presentation. Include the concepts of relative versus absolute judgment in your discussion. (Reforming Identification Procedures)

 

23. What does it mean to conduct a double-blind lineup? What are the potential consequences of not doing a lineup in this manner? (Reforming Identification Procedures)

 

24. Discuss the relationship between the confidence of a memory and the accuracy of a memory. What tends to increase an eyewitness’ confidence? How can false confidence be prevented? (Reforming Identification Procedures)

 

25. Jurors overestimate the validity of eyewitnesses’ testimony because they do not appear to be aware of some of the factors that may impact the accuracy of the eyewitnesses’ memory. Name three of these factors. (The Eyewitness in the Courtroom)

 

26. What two techniques have been proposed to help jurors become better informed about the factors that influence eyewitness performance? (The Eyewitness in the Courtroom)

 

27. What reasons do judges tend to give when they decide not to let expert witnesses testify on the topic of the accuracy of eyewitness identification? (Safeguards Against Mistaken Identification)

 

28. Describe the trial of Patrick and Thomas Hanigan. Explain why this trial is described in Chapter 5 as a “natural experiment.” (Safeguards Against Mistaken Identification)

 

29. What effects do cautionary instructions have on jurors’ beliefs about eyewitness accuracy? (Safeguards Against Mistaken Identification)

 

30. Discuss the reliability of children’s eyewitness accounts (as compared to adults). (Children as Witnesses)

 

31. If one were questioning a child witness, what features would be incorporated in a good investigative interview? Why are suggestive questions not advised? Why might general and more open-ended questions be more effective? (Children as Witnesses)

 

32. Do children’s reports differ when they are questioned in different ways? If so, how? (Children as Witnesses)

 

33. Some children experience multiple incidents of sexual abuse. What tends to happen to children’s recall of repeated events? (Children as Witnesses)

 

34. Discuss the reminiscent effect and the role this plays in child interviews. (Children as Witnesses)

 

35. Discuss the case of Margaret Kelly Michaels. (Children as Witnesses)

 

36. Is suggestive questioning necessary when one wants to probe a child’s memory? (Children as Witnesses)

 

37. How do interview bias and social influence potentially affect children’s responses during an investigative interview? (Children as Witnesses)

 

38. How can the interests of protecting child victims and honoring the confrontation clause of the Sixth Amendment be balanced in child sexual abuse cases? (Children as Witnesses)

 

39. It can be very traumatic for a child to testify in a court of law. What steps have been taken to lessen the trauma for these children? What are the advantages and disadvantages of using these techniques? (Children as Witnesses)

 

40. Describe the study that Gail Goodman and her colleagues did to investigate the effects of using closed-circuit television for children’s testimony. What were the general findings? (Children as Witnesses)

 

41. Define repression and dissociation. (Repressed and Recovered Memories)

 

42. What evidence do we have that suggests that it may be possible for people to forget horrible events that happened in childhood? Discuss the controversies around recovered memories and “memory-focused” psychotherapy. (Repressed and Recovered Memories)

 

43. If recovered memories are not true memories then where could they come from? (Repressed and Recovered Memories)

 

44. The American Psychological Association appointed a group of six psychologists to work together as a Working Group on Investigation of Memories of Childhood Abuse. What was the result of this group’s work? (Repressed and Recovered Memories)

 

45. How have psychologists investigated whether false memories can be implanted? (Repressed and Recovered Memories)

 

46. What is an “imagination inflation” effect and what could cause this effect to occur? (Repressed and Recovered Memories)

 

47. Some of the people who have “recovered” memories have been involved in court cases. Discuss the two types of cases that have typically occurred. Discuss the retraction of recovered memories in different cases. (Repressed and Recovered Memories)

 

48. Discuss the case of Gary Ramona. (Repressed and Recovered Memories)

 

 

 

 

Suggested Activities

 

Class Discussion and Debate

 

 

1. Discussion: Elizabeth Bennett has suggested the following

simulated crime exercise; she uses it to demonstrate a variety of concepts including the fragmentary nature of memory, the effects of leading questions and biased lineup instructions. The instructor begins this exercise by arranging to meet a small group of students at her office before class. Once the students are present the instructor arranges to be called away from the office for a few minutes during which time a simulated crime is staged for the unsuspecting students (this proves to be less unwieldy than staging a crime for the entire class). The instructor returns and all proceed to class. The instructor then assigns the rest of the class the job of investigating the “crime” to determine what happened. Activities can include developing a description of the “criminal,” and staging a lineup. Instructors interested in more information regarding this exercise are invited to contact Beth Bennett at BBennett@washjeff.edu or at the Psychology Department at Washington and Jefferson College, 60 South Lincoln Street, Washington, PA 15301.

 

2. Video/Discussion: In the article cited immediately below, Gee and Dyck

(1998) describe how to use a videotape clip from the movie Robocop to

demonstrate the fallibility of eyewitness memory. You can purchase this DVD from www.amazon.com. Source: Gee, N. R., & Dyck, J. L. (1998). Using a videotape clip to demonstrate the fallibility of eyewitness testimony. Teaching of

           Psychology, 25, 138-140.

 

3. Class Discussion: In class, have students view a trial that involves the testimony of an eyewitness. Discuss how the attorneys try to bolster and/or discredit this testimony. How much confidence is shown by the eyewitness?

 

4. Debate: Testimony by Children Who Are the Victims or Witnessed of Violence? A child called to testify can experience further suffering and psychological injury. How far should the justice system go to protect children while trying to maintain the rights of defendants? Should children be subjected to the potential trauma of testifying in order to protect the defendant’s constitutional right to confront his or her accuser? Does having the child testify via one-way closed-circuit television deny the defendant’s right to confrontation? Do the answers to these questions change when the defendant is someone that the child knows (e.g., a relative) as opposed to someone that the child does not know?

 

 

 

 

5. Debate: Repressed Memories: Fact or Fiction? Have a debate on the repressed memory issue. Possible source to aid in answering the question: “Are Repressed Memories Real?”: For a “Yes” response by R. P. Kluft, and a “No” response by E. F. Loftus, see Issue 8 in Nier, J. (Ed.) (2009). Taking sides: Clashing views in social psychology (3^rd ed.). Guilford, CT: Dushkin/McGraw-Hill.

 

6. Discussion: Provide students with a description of an eyewitnessed crime and follow-up investigation, and have students break into groups and identify the system, estimator and postdiction variables in the vignette.

 

7. Discussion: Review the different factors that judges should consider when evaluating the reliability of an eyewitness’s identification.

 

8. Discussion: Have students observe an event in the classroom. Then have students break into groups. Providing different scripts for guidance, have some groups conduct a cognitive interview and the other groups conduct a traditional interview regarding the observed event.

 

 

Research Activities and Assignments

 

1. Assignment: Students can take a self-paced course entitled “What Every Law Enforcement Officer Should Know About DNA Evidence” in an effort to become more familiar with this type of evidence. Go to http://dna.gov/training/letraining/ for more information.

 

2. Assignment: The National Institute of Justice held a Postconviction DNA Case Management Symposium in January of 2009. Presenters included Barry Scheck, Ronald Cotton and Jennifer Thompson-Cannino. Students can see the entire 2 day symposium at http://projects.nfstc.org/postconviction/.

 

3. Assignment: Students can individually take cases from www.innocenceproject.org and investigate what potentially led to wrongful conviction in their assigned case and write up a short paper discussing their findings.

 

4. Assignment: Have students sign up for The Innocence Project’s email list. They will be emailed every time someone gets exonerated! Go to www.innocenceproject.org and pull down the “Quick Links” to “join the email list.”

 

5. Research Activity/Writing Assignment: This activity idea comes from Garrett Berman. Have students read chapters in Loftus and Ketcham’s Witness for the Defense (see Suggested Readings) and find an empirical research article to support each of Loftus’ contentions. Write up a summary of the research contained in each article.

 

6. Research Activity/Class Presentation: Have students present to the class cases from Loftus and Ketcham’s Witness for the Defense (see Suggested Readings); discuss the circumstances and investigative procedures that lead to the convictions of innocent persons.

 

7. Research Activity/Writing Assignment: Have students look through newspaper sources for a real-life case which involved at least one eyewitness and then, in a paper, discuss the factors that could have influenced the eyewitness(es) in that particular case.

 

8. Survey: Students can take The Psychology of Eyewitness Identification survey provided in Wrightsman, Batson, and Edkins (2004). Measures of legal attitudes. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth (pp. 177-182). They then can compare their score to that of “experts” (scores provided). If you give this survey prior to presenting material from Chapter 5, it provides a nice illustration of how knowledge of eyewitness phenomena is not just common sense.

 

9. Assignment: Have students interview jurors from a recent trial that included testimony from an eyewitness. Did the jurors feel that this testimony influenced their opinion?

 

10. Survey: Students can take or administer the survey to assess attitudes toward the competence of children as witnesses in sexual abuse cases. This survey is provided in Wrightsman, Batson, and Edkins (2004). Measures of legal attitudes. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth (pp. 133-138).

 

11. Research Activity/Writing Assignment: Have students research different cases and published legal opinions involving the issue of eyewitness testimony and have students prepare a short written assignment addressing the different factors the courts used when finding the eyewitness testimony reliable or unreliable.

 

12. Assignment: Have students prepare mock juror instructions addressing the issue of eyewitness testimony for a hypothetical case.

 

13. Survey: Have students design and administer a survey examining opinions about the reliability of child testimony and child testimony in child abuse cases to members of their community.

 

 

Class Speakers/Guest Lecturers

 

1. Speaker: Ask a police detective to come to class and respond to the recommendations of The Justice Department for improving the administration of lineups and photo spreads.

 

2. Speaker: Invite an expert witness who has experiencing testifying in cases involving eyewitness testimony or repressed memories speak to the class.

 

3. Speaker: Invite an expert witness or researcher in the area of child eyewitness testimony and child maltreatment cases present his or her research and related experience to the class.

 

 

Media Activities

 

1. Video (DVD): Exonerated. This CBS 60 Minutes episode (airdate: 5/4/08) is a 12 minute program that re-examines cases of those in Texas who may have been wrongly convicted. Available from www.amazon.com.

 

2. Video: The New York Times interviewed 137 of the people who had been wrongfully convicted and then exonerated with the help of DNA. The reporters talked with them about their lives since they left prison. Audio files of many of these interviews are available at The New York Times website (http://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2007/11/25/nyregion/20071125_DNAI_FEATURE.html).

 

3. Video (DVD): After Innocence (2007) tells the story of several who have been exonerated by DNA. The film focuses their efforts to rebuild their lives after exoneration. One of the writers and producers worked at the Innocence Project while attending law school. Available from www.amazon.com.

 

4. Videos (VHS): Frontline’s video, The Case for Innocence shows how DNA evidence which could have proved the innocence of prisoners, was ignored, discounted or kept secret. Note that these prisoners have since been freed, and this show has been credited with helping achieve this. Call 1-877-PBS-SHOP or go to the website (http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/case/etc/tapes.html) to order this 90 minute video (now only available for educational purposes). A transcript of this video is also available from this website. See the Suggested Websites section for more information. If you show this video (and it is highly recommended), be sure to provide your students with updated information about Clyde Charles. They will be stunned to learn that after serving a 17 year sentence, Mr. Charles was exonerated by DNA evidence that later implicated his brother.

 

Clyde Charles’ updated story is also included in the Frontline video The Burden of Innocence (see the Suggested Websites section for more information). Educational videos are available as described above. This is also available for viewing online (go to http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/burden/view/).

 

 

 

5. Video (DVD): The Exonerated, originally an off-Broadway play about six people who were wrongfully convicted and later exonerated, has been made into a Court TV movie. The original play by Jessica Blank and Erik Jensen and the movie in DVD form are both available for purchase (both can be purchased at www.amazon.com).

 

6. Video (DVD): A Not So Perfect Match (airdate: 4/1/2007) is a 12 minute CBS 60 Minutes episode that asks an interesting question. What happens when a DNA match is close, but not exact? In this case, the perpetrator could be a member of the suspect’s family. Should police be allowed to demand family members’ DNA or is it a violation of our privacy? Available from www.amazon.com.

 

7. Video (DVD): Eyewitness. This CBS 60 Minutes episode (airdate: 3/8/09) tells the story of Jennifer Thompson who was raped at 22. She later picked Ronald Cotton out of a lineup; she was sure of her choice. Cotton served 11 years in prison before DNA revealed that he was not the perpetrator of this crime. Available from www.amazon.com.

 

8. Video (VHS): Show the video The Hurricane; it provides the “Hollywood” version of the story of boxer Rubin “Hurricane” Carter who was accused of a triple murder and later exonerated. Available from http://www.amazon.com.

 

9. Video (DVD): Eyewitness Testimony: Psychological Aspects (2001). This program looks at issues relevant to the topic of the reliability of eyewitness testimony, including the nature of constructive memory, leading questions, and the cognitive interview. Call Films for the Humanities & Sciences at 1-800-257-5126 or visit their website to order this 29 minute program (http://ffh.films.com/).

 

10. Video (VHS/DVD): The Study of Memory (1996). Provides a more basic introduction to the components of memory (encoding, storage and retrieval). Includes a video clip of a robbery to test eyewitness memory. Call Films for the Humanities & Sciences at 1-800-257-5126 or visit their website to order this 74 minute program (http://ffh.films.com/).

 

11. Video (VHS/DVD): Show the American Justice TV series video titled Eyewitness. This hour-long video describes four cases in which eyewitness testimony was inaccurate (e.g., one of these cases is a good illustration of how the culprit and the person falsely accused can look really similar to each other; another tells the story of witnesses asked to identify someone from a “Wanted for Murder” poster). Call 1-800-933-6249 or visit http://store.aetv.com/ to order a DVD version (Item # AAE-73225).

 

12. Video (VHS/DVD): The story of 16-year-old Terence Garner who was charged with armed robbery and attempted murder solely on the basis of eyewitness testimony is retold by PBS. Call 1-877-PBS SHOP and order the Frontline episode, An Ordinary Crime. See the Suggested Websites section for more information.
13. Video (VHS/DVD): When Children Accuse: Sex Crimes (1999). This 43 minute program from ABC News revisits some of the famous juvenile sex crime cases from the last two decades of the 90s and asks what happens when overzealous investigators ask children suggestive questions. Go to http://ffh.films.com/ or call 1-800-257-5126 to order.

 

14. Video (VHS/DVD): Witch Hunt: The Wenatchee Sex-Ring Case. This CBS News Program reviews the largest sex abuse case in U.S. history. Go to http://ffh.films.com/ or call 1-800-257-5126 to order this 23 minute program.

 

15. Video (VHS/DVD): False Memories (2000). This 51 minute video from the Discovery Channel considers the malleability of memory. Includes commentary by Elizabeth Loftus. Go to http://ffh.films.com/ or call 1-800-257-5126 to order.

 

 

 Suggested Readings

 

1. These newspaper articles consider various intriguing topics pertinent to DNA and the impact it can have within our legal system. These can be used to supplement your lecture or to generate discussion (ideas for discussion are presented below).

 

Dooley, E. C., & Williams, E. (2005, January 6). DNA sweep begins in Truro.

The Cape Cod Times, pp. A1, A6.

 

Description: This newspaper articles consider various intriguing topics pertinent to DNA and the impact it can have within our legal system. These can be used to supplement your lecture or to generate discussion (ideas for discussion are presented below).

 

Students may be surprised that “DNA sweeps” occur in this country. There have been a few cases in which this has occurred. One such case happened in Truro, MA, in which a single mother, Christa Worthington, was found dead in her home with her 2-year-old child clinging to her body. DNA samples were taken from nearly 10% of the adult male population in Truro in an effort to find the culprit. A match was made and the person who matched, Christopher McCowen, was convicted of this crime. As of this writing, McCowan’s second request for a new trial has been denied, and the DA has agreed to return all of the DNA samples they had collected to solve this crime. For complete information on this case, see The Cape Cod Times (http://www.capecodonline.com/cctimes/) (search the archives for “Worthington”).

 

Pernick, J. (2005, October 10). Justice delayed (and delayed, and delayed). New

                       York Times, p. B1.

 

 

 

Description: Students often wonder whether those who have been wrongfully imprisoned are compensated in some way. This article takes a look at how compensating the victims of wrongful convictions can be a very slow process if it occurs at all.

 

Preston, J. (2005, April 27). After 32 years, clothing yields DNA key to dozens

of rapes. The New York Times, pp. A1, B4.

 

Description: Should there be a time limit for DNA evidence? Note that the greater

the delay, the more difficult it is to mount a defense.

 

Preston, J. (2005, November 3). For ’73 rape victim, DNA revives horror, too.

New York Times, pp. 1A, B9.

 

Description: This article takes a different perspective in that it considers what DNA evidence has done for some victims who potentially have to relive the horror of a crime many years later.

 

Thompson, J. (2000, June 15). I was certain, but I was wrong. The New York

                       Times, p. 15.

 

Description: In this short editorial, Jennifer Thompson talks about her rape, her testimony stating that Ronald Cotton was the rapist, and the DNA evidence that later proved her wrong. Jennifer Thompson was the victim profiled in the Frontline program What Jennifer Saw which is no longer available for purchase (a 60 Minutes program retelling this story is available—see the Suggested Activities section above); see a book selection below and the Suggested Website section for more on this case.

 

Willing, R. (2005, June 8). Suspects get snared by a relative’s DNA. USA

                       Today, pp. 1A, 2A.

 

Description: This article provides details regarding the case of Willard Brown, a man who was sentenced to life in prison plus 10 years for the rape and murder of Deborah Sykes. How did police get him? They did not have his DNA, but they had his brother’s, and the DNA profiles were “remarkably similar.” The problem? Unrelated people can have some of the same genetic markers. See the article for more details.

 

Willing, R. (2005, August 17). DNA tests offer clues to suspect’s race. USA

                       Today, pp. 1A, 2A.

 

Description: At this point, a suspect’s eye color, and heritage can be learned from DNA, thus DNA testing can now give police an idea of what a suspect looks like. But racial profiling is a concern.

 

2. Scheck, B., Neufeld, P., & Dwyer, J. (2003). Actual innocence: Five days to

              execution and other dispatches from the wrongly convicted. New York:

Doubleday.

 

Description: The authors recount how they have used DNA evidence to free those wrongly convicted.

 

3. Junkin, T. (2004). Bloodsworth: The true story of the first death row inmate

              exonerated by DNA. Chapel Hill: Algonquin Books.

 

Cook, K. M (2008). Chasing justice: My story of freeing myself after two decades

              on death row for a crime I didn’t commit. Harper.

 

Grisham, J. (2007). The innocent man: Murder and injustice in a small town. Dell.

 

Description: Each of the three books above tells a story of a man that was wrongfully convicted and sent to death row.

 

4. Gross, S. R., Jacoby, K., Matheson, D. J., Montgomery, N., & Patil, S. (2005).

Exonerations in the United States 1989 through 2003. Journal of Criminal Law

              & Criminology, 95, 523-560.

 

Description: Gross et al. found 340 exonerations that had taken place in the U.S. between 1989 and 2003; in 144 cases, DNA evidence was used to exonerate. These authors provide information regarding the rate of exonerations over time (with DNA exonerations understandably increasing across the time period studied), and consider the types of crimes for which exonerated defendants were convicted (96% of the exonerations were either for murder or rape). In addition, in this review of exonerations, Gross et al. consider other topics relevant to Chapter 5 such as eyewitness misidentification (e.g., out of the 121 exonerations in rape cases, 88% involved eyewitness misidentification).

 

For a review of state statutes and the systems currently in place to compensate individuals who have been wrongly convicted and subsequently exonerated, see

 

Bernhard, A. (2004). Justice still fails: A review of recent efforts to compensate

individuals who have been unjustly convicted and later exonerated. Drake Law

           Review, 52, 704-738.

 

5. Doyle, J. (2005). True witness: Cops, courts, science, and the battle against

              misidentification. Palgrave MacMillan.

 

Description: This book considers topics relevant to Chapter 5, such as eyewitness memory research and DNA exoneration.

 

 

6. Thompson-Cannino, J., Cotton, R., & Torneo, E. (2009). Picking cotton: Our

              memoir of injustice and redemption. St. Martin’s Press.

 

Description: Tells the story of Jennifer Thompson-Cannino who, at 22, was raped. She later, with great certainty, identified the man as Ronald Cotton. Cotton spent 11 years in prison until DNA determined he was not the perpetrator of this crime. Cotton and Thompson-Cannino are now friends; they have written this book together.

 

7. Loftus, L. E., & Ketcham, K. (1992). Witness for the defense. New York: St.

Martin’s Press.

 

Description: This is a wonderful compilation of some of Elizabeth Loftus’ cases as an expert witness on eyewitness accuracy. Any chapter provides stimulating material for a class lecture or student report, but the chapter that presents the case of Steve Titus provides an unbelievably poignant example of the bad things that can happen to innocent persons who are mistakenly identified by victims. Included in the coverage of this case are photographs of the photo spread used in this case, so students can see for themselves how they can be structured to lead to a specific outcome.

 

8. Wells, G. L., & Loftus, E. F. (2003). Eyewitness memory for people and events. In

A.M. Goldstein (Ed.). Handbook of psychology, Vol. 11, Forensic psychology.

              New York: John Wiley & Sons, pp. 149-160.

 

Description: Covers many of the topics included in Chapter 5 (e.g., misinformation effects, planting false memories).

 

9. Ghetti, S., Schaaf, J. M., Qin, J., & Goodman, G. (2004). Issues in eyewitness

testimony. In W. T. O’Donohue & E. R. Levensky (Eds.), Handbook of forensic

              psychology: Resource for mental health and legal professionals (pp. 513-554).

San Diego: Elsevier.

 

Description: The authors discuss issues such as stress and eyewitness accuracy, and the relationship between the witness’ confidence and accuracy.

 

10. Loftus, E. F. (2005). Planting misinformation in the human mind: A 30-year

investigation of the malleability of memory. Learning and Memory, 12, 361-

 

Description: This provides a review of the research investigating the misinformation effect. (Note that the Disneyland and Bugs Bunny ads mentioned in Chapter 5 appear in this article.)

 

 

 

11. Wells, G., & Olson, E. A. (2003). Eyewitness testimony. Annual Review of

              Psychology, 54, 277-295.

 

Description: Provides a review of the experimental literature relevant to eyewitness testimony, organized using the estimator and system dichotomy.

 

See also:

 

Fulero, S. M. (2009). System and estimator variables in eyewitness identification: A

review. In D. A. Krauss and J. D. Lieberman (Eds.). Psychological expertise in

               court: Psychology in the courtroom, Vol. 2. Burlington, VT: Ashgate

               Publishing Co.

 

12. An issue of Psychology, Public Policy, and Law (March 2001, Volume 7, number 1) covers another factor that may need to be considered when evaluating eyewitness identification, the “other-race” effect. The faces of one’s one race tend to be better remembered than faces of other races. Articles include a meta-analysis of relevant literature and a field study of own-race bias.

 

13. Wells, G. L., Malpass, R. S., Lindsay, R. C. L., Fisher, R. P., Turtle, J. W., &

Fulero, S. M. (2000). From the lab to the police station: A successful application

of eyewitness research. American Psychologist, 55, 581-598.

 

Description: The authors describe their experiences working with those within the justice system to develop the U.S. Dept. of Justice’s national guide for collecting and preserving eyewitness evidence. (See the Suggested Websites section for information on how to obtain this guide).

 

14. Wells, G. L., Small, M., Penrod, S. J., Malpass, R. S., Fulero, S. M., &

Brimacombe, C. A. E. (1998). Eyewitness identification procedures:

Recommendations for lineups and photo spreads. Law and Human Behavior,

              22, 603-647.

 

Turtle, J., Lindsay, R. C. L., & Wells, G. L. (2003). Best practice recommendations

for eyewitness evidence procedures: New ideas for the oldest way to solve a

case. The Canadian Journal of Police & Security Services, 1, 5-18.

 

Description: These papers are very good sources of information about the best known procedures for conducting fair lineups and photo spreads.

 

15. Martire, K. A., & Kemp, R. I. (2009). The impact of eyewitness expert evidence

and judicial instruction on juror ability to evaluate eyewitness testimony. Law

              and Human Behavior, 33, 225-236.

 

Description: These authors consider one of the topics included in Chapter 5: how judicial instruction and expert evidence impact evaluations of eyewitness testimony.

16. Kassin, S. M., Ellsworth, P. C., & Smith, V. L. (1989). The “general acceptance” of

psychological research on eyewitness testimony: A survey of experts. American

              Psychologist, 44, 1089-1098.

 

Description: A very useful article for class discussion because it includes a list of research-based statements over which psychologists might testify, plus the percentage of psychologists who agree with each.

 

Also note that in light of the new Daubert rules, a more recent survey of experts has been conducted:

 

Kassin, S. M., Tubb, V. A., Hosch, H. M., & Memon, A. (2001). On the “general

acceptance” of eyewitness testimony research: A new survey of the experts.

              American Psychologist, 56, 405-416.

 

17. Bottoms, B. L., Kovera, M. B., & McAuliff, B. (Eds.). (2002). Children, social

               science, and the law. New York: Cambridge University Press.

 

Description: Presents information on many of the topics covered in Chapter 14 including children’s eyewitness memory, procedural innovations in child abuse proceedings, and the competence of the juvenile defendant.

 

18. Goodman, G. S. (2005). Wailing babies in her wake. American Psychologist, 60,

872-881.

 

Description: With a focus on her own work, Goodman provides a review of research concerning several of the topics discussed in Chapter 14 (e.g., children’s eyewitness memory and suggestibility, experiences of child witnesses within the legal system).

 

19. Ceci, S. J., & Bruck, M. (1993). Suggestibility of the child witness: A historical

review and synthesis. Psychological Bulletin, 113, 403-439.

 

Description: The authors discuss cases that relied entirely on the testimony of children. Also see the 1995 book by these authors, Jeopardy in the Courtroom: A Scientific Analysis of Children’s Testimony. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

 

Other possible sources:

 

Bruck, M., & Ceci, S. J. (1999). The suggestibility of children’s memory. Annual

               Review of Psychology, 50, 419-439.

 

Bruck, M., & Ceci, S. J. (2004). Forensic developmental psychology: Unveiling

four common misconceptions. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 13,

220-232.

Bruck, M., & Ceci, S. J. (2009). Reliability of child witnesses’ reports. In K. S.

Douglas, J. L. Skeem, & S. O. Lilienfeld (Eds.). Psychological science in the

               courtroom: Consensus and controversy. NY: Guilford Press.

 

20. Quas, J. A., Thompson, W. C., Alison, K., & Stewart, C. (2005). Do jurors “know”

what isn’t so about child witnesses? Law and Human Behavior, 29, 425-503.

 

Description: In an effort to address the question, are expert witnesses needed in child sexual abuse cases, the authors surveyed jurors and jury-eligible students and compared what they know to what researchers know about children’s memory and related issues.

 

21. The first issue of Psychology, Public Policy and Law (Number 2, June, 1995) includes the amicus brief for the case of State of New Jersey v. Margaret Kelly Michaels presented by a Committee of Concerned Social Scientists with commentary articles by various authors.

 

22. Hall, S. R., & Sales, B. D. (2008). Courtroom modifications for child witnesses:

               Law and Science in forensic evaluations. Washington, DC: American

Psychological Association.

 

Description: Reviews a variety of courtroom modifications that do and do not raise confrontation clause concerns.

 

23. Jones, M. (September 19, 2004). Who was abused? The New York Times Magazine,

77-81.

 

Description: Chapter 5 presents information regarding potential problems with the accuracy of witness accounts when suggestive questioning and other suggestive interviewing techniques are used. This article profiles those who were part of the “abuse-hysteria generation” and now, as grown-ups, are haunted by the knowledge that the abuse never occurred.

 

24. Many references are available on the topic of repressed/recovered memories. Here are a few recommended selections:

 

The entire December 1998 issue of Psychology, Public Policy, and Law (Volume 4, Number 4) is devoted to a report of the American Psychological Association Working Group on Investigation of Memories of Childhood Abuse. For more on the current discourse pertaining to the topic of memories of childhood abuse, see this issue. The report also contains reviews of the literature on trauma and memory and presents recommendations for future training and research.

 

Brainerd, C., & Reyna, V. (2005). The science of false memory. New York: Oxford

University Press.

 

Description: This book explores four major topics: theories of false memory, adult experimental psychology of false memory, false memory in legal contexts and false memory in psychotherapy.

 

Ewing, C. P., & McCann, J. T. (2006). Minds on Trial: Great cases in law and

              psychology. New York: Oxford University Press.

 

Description: See the chapter on Gary and Holly Ramona for more on this case.

 

Johnston, M. (1999). Spectral evidence: The Ramona case: Incest, memory, and

              truth on trial in the Napa Valley. Westview Press.

 

Description: This provides a detailed, easy-to-read description of Gary Ramona’s suit against the psychotherapists who uncovered his daughter’s recovered memories of incest. Both sides are presented.

 

Loftus, E., & Ketcham, K. (1996). The myth of repressed memory: False memories

              and allegations of sexual abuse. New York: St. Martin’s Press.

 

Description: An easy-to-read presentation on the topic of repressed memories. The title of this book clearly summarizes Loftus’ position.

 

Pezdek, K., & Banks, W. (1996). The recovered memory/false memory debate. New

York: Academic Press.

 

Description: Provides a variety of views within the current debate.

 

Porter, S., Yuille, J. C., & Lehman, D. R. (1999). The nature of real, implanted, and

fabricated memories for emotional childhood events: Implications for the

recovered memory debate. Law and Human Behavior, 23, 517-537.

 

Description: Authors of this article provide evidence that it is possible to remember a highly emotional event that never occurred.

 

Tsai, A. C., Morsbach, S. K., & Loftus, E. F. (2004). In search of recovered

memories. In W. T. O’Donohue & E. R. Levensky (Eds.), Handbook of forensic

   psychology: Resource for mental health and legal professionals (pp. 555-577).   San Diego: Elsevier.

 

Description: Reviews the legal history of repression, the scientific evidence for repression and the evidence on false memory creation. The authors finish the chapter with suggestions for practitioners and researchers.

 

 

 

 

Davis, D., & Loftus, E. F. (2009). The scientific status of “repressed” and

“recovered” memories of sexual abuse. In K. S. Douglas, J. L. Skeem, & S. O.

Lilienfeld (Eds.). Psychological science in the courtroom: Consensus and

               controversy. NY: Guilford Press.

 

Description: Good source of information regarding empirical tests of the existence of repressed memories, specifically of child sexual abuse.

 

25. Krähenbühl, S., Blades, M., Eiser, C.. (2009). The effect of repeated questioning on

children’s accuracy and consistency in eyewitness testimony.  Legal and

              Criminological Psychology, 14(2), 263-278.

 

Description: This study evaluated the effects of repeated questioning and the length of time between repeated questions on the accuracy of children’s responses regarding an observed event. Results suggest repetition and time interval did not affect responses to answerable or known questions, but decreased the accuracy of unanswerable or unknown questions.

 

26. Cederborg, A. C., Alm, C., Lima da Silva Nises, D., & Lamb, M. E. (2012).
    Investigative interviewing of alleged child abuse victims: An evaluation of a new  

training programme for investigative interviewers. Police Practice and Research, 1-13. 

Description: This article evaluates the effectiveness of a training program for

investigators conducting investigative interviews with children who were suspected

victims of physical abuse.

 

For information about the American Professional Society on the Abuse of

Children’s Guidelines for conducting forensic interviews in cases of suspected child

abuse, see:  http://www.apsac.org/practice-guidelines.

 

27.   Bradfield Douglas, A., Neuschatz, J. S., Umrich, J., & Wilkinson, M. (2010).

Does post-identification feedback affect evaluations of eyewitness testimony and identification procedures? Law and Human Behavior, 34(4), 282-294.

 

Description: This article reviews two studies which evaluated the effects of post-

identification feedback on eyewitness testimony and eyewitness’s confidence in their identifications. Results suggest that eyewitnesses who receive positive feedback about their identifications appear more accurate and confident.

 

 

 

 

 

 

See also:

 

Paiva, M., Berman, G. L., Cutler, B. L., Platania, J., & Weipert, R. (2011). Influence

of confidence inflation and explanations for changes in confidence on

evaluations of eyewitness identification accuracy. Legal and Criminological

              Psychology, 16(2), 266-276.

 

Description: This study examined students’ perceptions of immediate and inflated

confidence of eyewitnesses and whether students’ reliance on confidence varies as

a function of the explanations given by the eyewitness for his or her inflated

confidence.

 

 

Suggested Websites

 

1. Go to the Oyez website (www.oyez.org) for more information about the following Supreme Court cases:

 

Coy v. Iowa (1988)

         Maryland v. Craig (1990)

 

 

2. The Innocence Project at the Benjamin N. Cardozo School of Law was created by Barry C. Scheck and Peter J. Neufeld in 1992. This Project handles cases where postconviction DNA testing of evidence can yield conclusive proof of innocence. The Innocence Project, is responsible for, as of this writing, the exoneration of 248 wrongly convicted prisoners. Read more about these cases and the Innocence Project by visiting http://www.innocenceproject.org/.

 

3. Visit http://www.innocenceproject.org/docs/Innocence_Project_Compensation_Report.pdf to see the Innocence Project’s recent report on compensation: Making up for lost time: What the wrongfully convicted endure and how to provide fair compensation.

 

4. The New York Times did a series on the lives of those who have been exonerated by DNA. Visit http://www.nytimes.com/2007/11/25/us/25jeffrey.html and http://www.nytimes.com/2007/11/25/us/25dna.html to read about their experiences.

 

5. An article in The New York Times shows how DNA exonerations have brought change to the legal system. Visit the following website to see this article: http://www.nytimes.com/2007/10/01/us/01exonerate.html?fta=y. Also see http://www.nytimes.com/2007/10/18/nyregion/18dna.html?fta=y to read about what New York is doing (or not doing) to prevent wrongful convictions.

 

 

6. Visit http://www.justicedenied.org/ to see Justice Denied, the magazine for the wrongly convicted. All issues are available online. The Justice Denied website also has links to many personal websites for those falsely accused (see the page located at http://justicedenied.org/weblinks.htm).

 

7. The President’s DNA Initiative includes case studies and a short history of the use of DNA evidence; see http://www.dna.gov/.

 

8. Students can solve a mystery by creating a DNA fingerprint online! Visit http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/sheppard/analyze.html to participate. This demonstration takes about five minutes; each step is explained along the way (note that if you make a mistake, you have to start over from the beginning).

 

9. The Frontline site What Jennifer Saw examines eyewitness error and how DNA evidence is being used to reverse wrongful convictions (http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/dna/). Interviews and commentaries from experts in DNA (e.g., Barry Scheck) and memory (e.g., Elizabeth Loftus) are included at this site. This site is particularly recommended as an illustration of how the witness’ confidence should not be used as an indication of the witness’ accuracy (see the interview with the victim, Jennifer Thompson, for information regarding her level of confidence). Note that the PBS videotape of What Jennifer Saw is no longer available for purchase.

 

10. The Frontline episode The Case for Innocence details the use of DNA evidence; it has a website (http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/case/) which includes updated information regarding the prisoners profiled in this report as well as an interview with Barry Scheck, co-founder of The Innocence Project which has successfully exonerated prisoners using DNA evidence.

 

11. The Frontline episode The Burden of Innocence also has a website (http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/burden/). This site includes information regarding the five prisoners profiled in this report (this includes an update on Clyde Charles who is also profiled in Frontline’s The Case for Innocence).

 

12. Northwestern University School of Law’s Center on Wrongful Convictions (http://www.law.northwestern.edu/wrongfulconvictions/) includes information on those who have been exonerated (a state-by-state list is included).

 

13. The Frontline episode, An Ordinary Crime, tells the story of 16-year-old Terence Garner who was charged with armed robbery and attempted murder solely on the basis of eyewitness testimony. Read more about this case at the following website (http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/ordinary/).

 

14. The American Psychology-Law Society has a website (http://www.ap-ls.org/links/publishingEyewitness.html) that lists published research in eyewitness memory/testimony.

 

15. Many have websites with information relevant to eyewitness memory. Try Gary Wells’ site (http://www.psychology.iastate.edu/faculty/gwells/homepage.htm), Elizabeth Loftus’ site (http://www.seweb.uci.edu/faculty/loftus/), and the Eyewitness Identification Research Laboratory site at The University of Texas at El Paso (home to Roy Malpass and Chris Meissner among others) (http://eyewitness.utep.edu/) for a wealth of information on eyewitness identification phenomena (e.g., full text of journal articles).

 

16. Chris Meissner’s website includes experimental stimuli that he and his colleagues have used in cross-racial face recognition research (i.e., head shots) and in verbal overshadowing research (e.g., stimuli includes video of a theft at a bake sale). Researchers who are interested in using these materials are invited to download the provided stimuli from the website (http://iilab.utep.edu/stimuli.htm).

 

17. For a listing of different publications addressing the issue of cross race identification bias, or the race effect see http://eyewitness.utep.edu/race.html

 

18. The United States Department of Justice (DOJ) published a guide for law enforcement officers on how to collect and preserve eyewitness evidence. This guide is available online. To view this document in its entirety, you can download the Adobe Acrobat graphic file available from the DOJ website (http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/nij/pubs-sum/178240.htm).

 

19. Elizabeth Loftus and Jonathan Schooler both gave lectures at San Francisco’s Exploratorium during a series on Memory Myths, Malleabilities, and Madness: A Question of Trauma, Truth, and Testimony (see the Exploratorium website at http://www.exploratorium.edu/memory/loftusandschooler.html). Loftus describes a variety of cases in which repressed memories have been said to play a role (e.g., the Franklin case) and talks about her research that indicates that it is possible to plant false childhood memories. Schooler talks about discovered memory experiences and their correspondence to actual events. Loftus’ and Schooler’s lectures are part of a lecture series on memory that was held at the Exploratorium—all of these lectures are available through the Exploratorium “Memory” site archives.

 

20. The Frontline episode entitled The Child Terror has a website (the video is no longer available) (see http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/terror/) which reviews the cases of Harold Grant Snowden (a police officer accused of molesting preschoolers who were in his wife’s care) and Bobby Fijnje (a 14-year-old accused of subjecting numerous children in his church daycare center to repeated sexual and satanic rituals). In both the Snowden and Fijnje cases, prosecutors used the “Miami Method,” a “new” way that these Miami officials had devised to win convictions in child sexual abuse cases. This method included videotaping interviews with the children, using expert testimony at trial together with physical evidence, and obtaining statements from multiple child witnesses. There was later criticism regarding the interviewing techniques used by those interviewing the children. This site includes video excerpts of an interview with one of the child witnesses in the case against Harold Snowden (a full transcript of the interview is also provided); this site also includes Stephen Ceci’s commentary on portions of the same interview. The provided interview can be used to illustrate the effects of leading questioning.

 

21. The Frontline website entitled Innocence Lost: The Plea covers the Little Rascals Day Care Center case (the video of this program is no longer available). This website includes excerpts from the children’s testimony as well as passages from the closing arguments of the defense and prosecution. Also includes excerpts from a variety of pertinent readings (e.g., Ceci and Bruck’s (1995) Jeopardy in the Courtroom). As above, the effects of leading questions can be considered. Visit (http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/innocence/) for more information.

 

http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/innocence/readings/childwitnesses.html

 

22. The False Memory Syndrome Foundation (FMSF) (http://www.fmsfonline.org/) was created in 1992 and currently serves as a clearinghouse of information and as a catalyst for discussion and research about the specific claims that have formed the basis of the false memory debate. The site includes FMSF newsletters, a section on hypnosis, and retractor’s stories.

 

23. The False Memory Lab at The University of Arkansas maintains a list of references pertinent to false memories and eyewitness testimony. Visit their website at http://comp.uark.edu/~lampinen/biblio.html to see this list.

 

24. For a discussion of the controversy surrounding recovered memories of child abuse

and a review of different evidentiary issues and cross-examination strategies for

witnesses with recovered memories of abuse, see the website:

http://kspope.com/memory/repweb2a.php. This site also provides numerous

citations for references on this topic.

 

25. For a recent article addressing child eyewitness testimony and the factors affecting

the credibility of such testimony, see the website:

http://abcnews.go.com/Primetime/Health/story?id=965740&page=1#.UE2Ojt2PV6I

and review the story entitled, “Just How Credible is a Child Eyewitness.”

 

26. The different issues surrounding the use and potential fallibility of police line-ups

have been noted by many. For a recent story suggesting that police line-ups

encourage and result in mistaken identification see

http://www.usatoday.com/news/nation/2002-11-25-police-lineups-cover-usat_x.htm

 

27.  The Child Witness Project is a program in Ontario, Canada, which serves child and

          other vulnerable witnesses and works with them to communicate evidence to the

          court without being traumatized by the process of being a witness. The program

          takes police referrals for children and adolescents who may need to testify in a

         criminal case and provides education, teaches different coping strategies and

         provides support and advocacy to these individuals as they prepare for and provide

         testimony. More information can be found at:          http://www.lfcc.on.ca/cwp.htm

 

28. For a discussion about the accuracy of visual memories and the reliability of eyewitness testimony,

       see: http://www.cbsnews.com/2100-18560_162-4848039.html — 2009.

 

29. The Reliability of Eyewitness Testimony Under Scrutiny: Listen to the author of

Convicting the Innocent: Where Criminal Prosecutions Go Wrong, the deputy

attorney general of New Jersey and a professor of psychology from Iowa State

University discuss a 2011 ruling by the New Jersey Supreme Court, which makes it

easier for defendants to question the credibility of eyewitness testimony in criminal

cases. This recent decision is part of an ongoing debate about the role eyewitness

testimony plays in criminal proceedings. See:

http://www.npr.org/2011/08/29/140039620/reliability-of-eyewitness-testimony-   

under-scrutiny.

Test Bank

 

Multiple Choice Questions

 

1.   According to the National Registry on Exonerations, between the years of 1989 and 2012, _______percent of documented exonerations for rapes and robberies involved mistaken eyewitness identifications.

 

1. 80%
2. 50%
3. 30%
4. 20%

 

Answer: A                       Reference: Eyewitnesses to Crimes and Accidents,

Introduction

 

2. The Innocence Project has found that mistaken identification accounts for more wrongful convictions than

 

1. false confessions.
2. defective science.
3. problems with snitches.
4. all of the above

 

Answer: D                       Reference: Eyewitnesses to Crimes and Accidents,

Introduction

3. ______________are the leading cause of wrongful convictions, particularly in cases

of robbery and sexual assaults.

 

1. False confessions
2. Lost and/or lack of evidence
3. Eyewitness errors
4. None of the above

 

Answer:   C                     Reference: Examples of Mistaken Eyewitness

Identification

 

4.   Sometimes police just look for evidence that implicates a suspect that has been identified by an eyewitness and stop investigating any other leads. This situation is an illustration of

 

1. illusory correlation.
2.   confirmation bias.
3. police attention outlook.
4. none of the above

 

Answer: B                       Reference: Examples of Mistaken Eyewitness

Identification

 

5. The cases of Calvin C. Johnson and Cornelius Dupree provide examples of _________________________, or cases in which the police stop investigating other leads and focus only developing evidence against the suspects identified by eyewitnesses and believed to be guilty.

 

1. confirmation bias
2. prosecutorial discretion
3. police officer discretion
4. none of the above

 

Answer: A                       Reference:  Examples of Mistaken Eyewitness

Identification

 

6. Only ____ states have laws that compensate individuals who were wrongly imprisoned.

 

1. 10
2. 12
3. 27
4. 37

 

Answer: C                       Reference: Examples of Mistaken Eyewitness

Identification

7. Mistakes in the identification process typically occur

 

1. during the investigation of a crime.
2. at the moment a crime is committed.
3. Both A and B
4. only when certain environmental factors are present.

 

Answer: C                       Reference: How Mistaken Eyewitness Identifications

Occur

 

8. Last night Laura was robbed at gunpoint. When asked to describe the perpetrator, she found that all she could remember was the gun and not the way the perpetrator looked. Which of the best following describes this circumstance?

 

1. forced weapon encoding
2. weapon present effect
3. weapon attention effect
4.   weapon focus effect

 

Answer: D                                   Reference:  Basic Information Processing

 

9. _________________________ is when someone unconsciously selects the information he or she will focus on and process most likely because of having a limited attentional capacity and an inability to process a lot of information at one time.

 

1. Confirmation bias
2. Selective attention
3. Repressed memories
4. None of the above

 

Answer: B                       Reference: Basic Information Processing

 

10. Bob was attacked by a drunken man with a knife. According to information presented in Chapter 5, it is possible that the presence of this weapon affected Bob’s memory of

 

1. the perpetrator’s face.
2. what the perpetrator said.
3. the knife.
4.   both A and B

 

Answer: D                                   Reference: Basic Information Processing

 

 

 

11. The presence of a weapon during the witnessing of a crime often affects

 

1. attention and recall.
2. auditory processing.
3. language comprehension.
4. all of the above

 

Answer: D                       Reference: Basic Information Processing

 

12. During an extremely stressful situation, how is encoding affected?

 

1. It becomes more accurate.
2. It is often incomplete.
3. It gets more thorough and detailed.
4. It is not affected, but storage and retrieval are.

 

Answer: B                       Reference: Basic Information Processing

 

13. In one study of soldiers’ ability to make eyewitness identifications after being exposed to varying levels of stress in an interrogation, only ______ percent of soldiers who experienced high stress were able to make correct identifications.

 

1. 17%
2. 25%
3. 34%
4. 52%

 

Answer: C                       Reference: Basic Information Processing

 

14. Diane was the sole witness to a crime. After witnessing the crime, she talked with her husband and her co-workers about what she saw. According to Chapter 5, these discussions potentially can taint her memory of the crime event for it can

 

1. introduce her to those who saw the crime from a different vantage point.
2. depress her.
3. decrease the chance of her talking to the police about what she saw.
4. introduce post-event information that may alter her memory for the original event.

 

Answer: D                       Reference: Basic Information Processing

 

 

 

 

15. In one of Loftus’ studies, a first group of subjects was asked how fast the car was going “when it ran the stop sign” while a second group was asked how fast the car was going “when it turned right.” When later asked if they had seen a stop sign

 

1. 75% of the first group said yes; 53% of the second group said yes.
2. 53% of the first group said yes; 35% of the second group said yes.
3. 37% of the first group said yes; 35% of the second group said yes.
4. 14% of the first group said yes; 34% of the second group said yes.

 

Answer: B                       Reference: Basic Information Processing

 

16. Meta-analyses of 53 studies showed that the longer the retention interval,

 

1. the less memory loss for previously-seen faces.
2. the more memory loss for previously-seen faces.
3. there is no change in memory for previously-seen faces.
4. none of the above

 

Answer:   B                     Reference:  Basic Information Processing

 

17. A robbery occurs at a liquor store. The clerk identifies the defendant in a police lineup. The defendant claims he had been in the store earlier to get change, but had not robbed the store. If the defendant is telling the truth, the clerk’s identification would reflect

 

1. unconscious dreaming.
2. a confabulation.
3. extreme suggestibility.
4.   unconscious transference.

 

Answer:   D                     Reference:  Basic Information Processing

 

18. A researcher had one group of study participants witness a staged crime in which an older perpetrator stole items from a desk. A second group of study participants witness a staged crime in which a younger perpetrator stole the same items from the desk. After witnessing the crime, the witnesses are asked to report what they saw. The value of doing an experiment and controlling what is presented is that the researcher knows exactly what the witnesses saw. This is called

 

1. hit rate.
2. ground truth.
3. ecological.
4. system variables.

 

Answer:   B                     Reference:  Basic Information Processing

 

19. System variables are

 

1. systematic.
2. uncontrollable.
3.   controllable.
4. unsystematic.

 

Answer:   C                     Reference:  Variables that Affect Eyewitness Accuracy

 

20. Which of the following would be considered an estimator variable in the dichotomy of eyewitness identification variables provided by Gary Wells?

 

1. line-up instructions
2. photo spread composition
3.   lighting conditions at the time of the crime
4. none of the above

 

Answer:   C                     Reference:  Variables that Affect Eyewitness Accuracy

 

21. Which of the following would be considered a postdiction variable?

 

1. the line-up instructions
2. the photo spread composition
3. the lighting conditions at the time of the crime
4. the confidence that a witness feels

 

Answer:   D                     Reference:  Variables that Affect Eyewitness Accuracy

 

22. The other race effect refers to the idea that

 

1.   eyewitnesses are usually better at recognizing and identifying members of their own race or ethnic group than members of another race or ethnic group.
2. those selecting a jury should strive to have jurors who are the same race or ethnicity as the defendant.
3. those creating a line-up should make sure that all the distractors (i.e., non-suspects) are not of another race from the stated race of the suspect.
4. eyewitnesses are usually worse at recognizing and identifying members of their own race or ethnic group than members of another race or ethnic group.

 

Answer:   A                     Reference:  Variables that Affect Eyewitness Accuracy

 

 

 

 

 

23. __________________________________ refers to the differences between faces of one race and faces of another race in terms of the variability in facial features.

 

1. Physiognomic variability
2. Dermatological variability
3. Facial recognition variability
4. Racial feature variability

 

Answer:   A                     Reference: Variables that Affect Eyewitness Accuracy

 

24. For a white eyewitness to correctly identify a black culprit, those who provide a cognitive interpretation of the other race effect, a physiognomic variability approach, might suggest that the eyewitness

 

1. focus on encoding the culprit’s hair color.
2.     focus on encoding the culprit’s skin tone.
3. focus on encoding the culprit’s eye color.
4. all of the above

 

Answer:   B                     Reference:  Variables that Affect Eyewitness Accuracy

 

25. Which of the following represents social psychologists’ explanation for the other race effect?

 

1. the social diversity theory
2.     in-group/out-group differences
3. physiognomic variability
4. the ethnicity fallacy

 

Answer:   B                     Reference:  Variables that Affect Eyewitness Accuracy

 

26. According to the in-group/out-group differences hypothesis, when we encounter someone from the same race or ethnic group as ourselves, we immediately devote our attention to distinguishing that person from other members of the in-group. This is an explanation of why we tend to be

 

1. incapable of seeing the differences between our ethnic group or race and others.
2. better at identifying those within our own ethnic group or race than those from other races or ethnic groups.
3. likely to have an easier time identifying those from another ethnic group or race than those of our own.
4. extremely confident when identifying members of our own ethnic group or race.

 

Answer:   B                     Reference:  Variables that Affect Eyewitness Accuracy

 

 

27. Which of the following is true?

 

1. Current evidence suggests that women as opposed to men are much more likely to make accurate eyewitness identifications.
2. Current evidence suggests that men as opposed to women are much more likely to make accurate eyewitness identifications.
3. Current evidence suggests that neither gender is superior to the other with regard to making accurate eyewitness identifications.
4. None of the above is true as surprisingly, researchers have not yet investigated this topic.

 

Answer:   C                     Reference:  Variables that Affect Eyewitness Accuracy

 

28. Recent research suggests that women are ____________ at recognizing male faces than female faces.

 

1. better
2. worse
3. equally poor
4. just as good

 

Answer: B                       Reference: Variables that Affect Eyewitness Accuracy

 

29. Which of the following is a true statement regarding how the age of an eyewitness tends to impact lineup identifications?

 

1. Older adults and young children are more likely to make a mistaken identification in a lineup in which the perpetrator is absent than young and middle-aged adults.
2. Older adults and young children are less likely to make a mistaken identification in a lineup in which the perpetrator is absent than young and middle-aged adults.
3. Older adults and young children do not perform as well as younger adults when the perpetrator is present in the lineup.
4. Young adults routinely outperform older adults and young children on eyewitness tasks involving lineup identification.

 

Answer:   A                     Reference:  Variables that Affect Eyewitness Accuracy

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

30. The cognitive interview that emphasizes context reinstatement would not involve

 

1. follow-up questions.
2.   hypnotizing the victim.
3. having the victim recall the events in backward order.
4. telling the victim to remember the emotion he or she was feeling.

 

Answer:   B                     Reference:  Reforming Identification Procedures

 

31. State v. Henderson (2011) relied on social science research when

 

1. identifying the factors judges should consider when evaluating an eyewitness identification.
2. concluding hypnosis is appropriate during eyewitness interviews.
3. outlining the required criteria for line-up procedures.
4. ruling hypnotized identifications are inherently unreliable.

 

Answer: A                       Reference: Reforming Identification Procedures

 

32. Results of a meta-analysis of 65 experiments examining the effectiveness of the cognitive interview suggest the cognitive interview

 

1. diminishes the likelihood of correct recall.
2. increases correct recall.
3. increases correct recall, but also increases the recall of incorrect details.
4. decreases recall of incorrect details and increases correct recall overall.

 

Answer: C                       Reference: Reforming Identification Procedures

 

33. Researchers recommend that a person conducting a lineup should tell the witness that the culprit may or may not be present in the lineup. Without this instruction, what tends to happen?

 

1. False identifications tend to increase.
2. The eyewitness may feel that they must choose someone.
3. The eyewitness tends to choose the person who most resembles the person they witnessed.
4.     all of the above

 

Answer: D                       Reference: Reforming Identification Procedures

 

 

 

 

 

34. According to Chapter 5, what is the recommendation regarding the selection of fillers for a lineup?

 

1. Do not put more than 6 people (5 fillers and the suspect) in a lineup.
2.   Have all members (fillers and the suspect) of the lineup match the witness’s   description.
3. All fillers should sound similar to the suspect.
4. Fillers should be those who are well versed in lineup procedures.

 

Answer: B                       Reference: Reforming Identification Procedures

 

35. According to information presented in Chapter 5, researchers have found that one of the following is preferable for lineups in most situations. Which one?

 

1. sequential presentation
2. simultaneous presentation
3. elimination lineup
4. showup

 

Answer: A                       Reference: Reforming Identification Procedures

 

36. In a meta-analysis comparing simultaneous and sequential presentations in line-up procedures, mistaken identifications were reduced by about ________ when presentations were _______________________ and correct identifications were reduced by ________ when presentations were __________________________.

 

1. 22%, sequential; 8%, sequential
2. 8%, simultaneous; 22%, simultaneous
3. 22%, sequential; 8%, simultaneous
4. 8%, simultaneous; 22%, sequential

 

Answer: A                       Reference: Reforming Identification Procedures

 

37. In a simultaneous presentation lineup _________________ is used, while in a sequential presentation lineup ___________________ is used.

 

1. relative judgment; absolute judgment
2. absolute judgment; relative judgment
3. precision judgment; discrepancy judgment
4. discrepancy judgment; precision judgment

 

Answer: A                       Reference: Reforming Identification Procedures

 

 

 

38. Greg is viewing a lineup with simultaneous presentation. He had told police that the person he saw commit the crime is white with light color hair. When presented with six white people in his lineup, he chooses the person who has the lightest color hair in the group. How would we best characterize this judgment?

 

1. It is an absolute judgment.
2. It is a precision judgment.
3.     It is a relative judgment.
4. It is a discrepancy judgment.

 

Answer: C                       Reference: Reforming Identification Procedures

 

39. A line-up procedure in which the police officers administrating the line-up and the eyewitness making the identification are both unaware of the potential suspect would reflect

 

1. experimenter bias.
2. a double-blind procedure.
3. an unreliable identification procedure.
4. none of the above

 

Answer: B                       Reference: Reforming Identification Procedures

 

40. Thomas is the victim of a crime, and he has been called down to the police station to view a lineup. After some thought, he chooses the fourth person from the left. The detective administering the lineup says, “Good, we thought that was the one.” According to research presented in Chapter 5, what is the likely result of this confirming feedback?

 

1. Thomas is more willing to testify at the trial.
2. Thomas now sees this person’s face more clearly in his memories of the crime.
3. Thomas feels more confident about his identification.
4.   all of the above

 

Answer: D                       Reference: Reforming Identification Procedures

 

41. Research tends to show that the relationship between the accuracy of an eyewitness’ testimony and the eyewitness’ confidence or certainty is

 

1. relatively strong.
2. relatively weak.
3. strong when the eyewitness is a female and weak when the eyewitness is a male.
4. strong only when the eyewitness was under stress while observing the crime.

 

Answer: B                       Reference: Reforming Identification Procedures

 

42. Which of the following is an effective way to eliminate false confidence in eyewitness identifications?

 

1. asking the witness to provide a statement of certainty before the lineup administrator provides any feedback
2. using unbiased lineup instructions
3. using similar looking fillers in a lineup
4. using sequential, not simultaneous presentation, in a lineup

 

Answer: A                       Reference: Reforming Identification Procedures

 

43. Which of the following was found by Brewer and Burke (2002) to have a strong impact on jurors’ verdict decisions?

 

1. the witness’ level of anxiety
2.   the witness’ level of confidence
3. whether the witness was a victim or an observer (observer is better)
4. whether the witness was hypnotized

 

Answer: B                       Reference: Reforming Identification Procedures

 

44. Research suggests jurors overestimate eyewitness accuracy because

 

1. they assume eyewitnesses are accurate and have credible memories.
2. they believe eyewitness testimony reflects memory quality, not questioning or

line up procedures.

1. they trust eyewitness’s over-confidence in their identifications.
2. all of the above

 

Answer:   D                     Reference: The Eyewitness in the Courtroom

 

45. Loftus (1974) gave subjects a description of an armed robbery. Eighteen percent presented with only circumstantial evidence convicted the defendant. When an eyewitness’ identification was provided in addition to the circumstantial evidence, what percentage convicted the defendant?

 

1.   18% of the jurors convicted him
2. 25% of the jurors convicted him
3. 42% of the jurors convicted him
4.     72% of the jurors convicted him

 

Answer: D                       Reference: The Eyewitness in the Courtroom

 

 

46. Which of these is not a reason given by judges when they decide not to let psychologists testify as expert witnesses regarding the accuracy of eyewitness identification?

 

1.     The testimony psychologists would give is just common sense.
2.     The testimony would make jurors skeptical of all eyewitnesses.
3.     It could lead to a “battle of experts.”
4. For courtroom testimony, expert witnesses require a medical degree, and psychologists do not have this degree.

 

Answer: D                       Reference: Safeguards Against Mistaken Identification

 

47. The Telfaire instruction has been found to ______________ mock jurors’ sensitivity to eyewitness evidence.

 

1. increase
2. decrease
3. not affect
4. The Telfaire instruction does not address eyewitness evidence.

 

Answer: B                       Reference: Safeguards Against Mistaken Identification

 

48. According to Chapter 5, children over the age of six can make reasonably reliable identifications from lineups as long as

 

1. the child has an above average IQ.
2. the perpetrator is in the lineup.
3. the child had extended contact with the perpetrator.
4.     both B and C

 

Answer: D                       Reference: Children as Witnesses

 

49. Six-year-old Corey is a witness to a crime, and he has been asked to view a lineup. Unfortunately, the true perpetrator is not in the lineup. Researchers would predict that Corey, as compared to adults,

 

1.   would be more likely to make a false positive error.
2. would be more likely to make a false negative error.
3. would be less likely to make a false positive error.
4. would be less likely to make a false negative error.

 

Answer: A                       Reference: Children as Witnesses

 

 

 

50. If one is questioning a child witness, what features would be incorporated in a good investigative interview?

 

1. A good interviewer would ask the child to describe the event in his or her own words before asking specific questions.
2. A good interview protocol would discourage the use of suggestive questions.
3.   both A and B
4. neither A nor B

 

Answer: C                       Reference: Children as Witnesses

 

51. Specific questioning of children is problematic because

 

1. it requires children to provide precise details which may have been forgotten.
2. it is suggestive and often leading.
3. increases the risk of obtaining inaccurate information.
4. all of the above

 

Answer: D                       Reference: Children as Witnesses

 

52. Some children have experienced multiple incidents of sexual abuse. What tends to happen to a child’s recall of repeated events?

 

1.   Although repetition enhances memory for aspects of the event that are held constant, it impairs the ability to recall details that vary with each recurrence.
2. Repetition enhances memory for both the aspects of the event that are held constant and the ones that vary with each recurrence.
3. Repetition impairs memory for both the aspects of the event that are held constant and those that vary.
4. Repetition impairs memory for aspects of the event that are held constant, although source memory tends to improve.

 

Answer: A              Reference: Children as Witnesses

 

53. Multiple interviews using open-ended questions may be helpful when interviewing children because of

 

1. practice effects.
2. the reminiscence effect.
3. the suggestive effects.
4. none of the above

 

Answer: B                       Reference: Children as Witnesses

 

 

54. Which of the following has been shown to play a role in the suggestive questioning of child witnesses?

 

1. interviewer bias
2. social influence
3. selective reinforcement of answers
4. all of the above

 

Answer: D              Reference: Children as Witnesses

 

55. London and her colleagues identified adults with documented histories of childhood sexual abuse and learned that _________ had disclosed the abuse while they were children.

 

1. 12%
2. 24%
3. 33%
4. 50%

 

Answer: C                       Reference: Children as Witnesses

 

56. Alexander et al. (2005) contacted adolescents and young adults who had been involved in a study years earlier that was conducted to assess the effects of criminal prosecutions on child abuse victims. These researchers asked respondents to indicate which events had previously happened to them and which event was the most traumatic. According to Chapter 5, what did these researchers find?

 

1. Respondents who designated child sexual abuse as their most traumatic experience were not very accurate in reporting the details of their experiences.
2. Respondents who designated child sexual abuse as their most traumatic experience were very accurate in reporting the details of their experiences.
3. Surprisingly, most respondents did not report that child sexual abuse happened to them.
4. Although some respondents did report that they had experienced child sexual abuse, they often downplayed the seriousness of the event.

 

Answer: B                       Reference: Children as Witnesses

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

57. Child witnesses are generally viewed as ______ credible than adult witnesses; child victims in a sexual abuse case are viewed as ______ credible than adults.

 

1. less; more
2. more; less
3. less; less
4. more; more

 

Answer: A                       Reference: Children as Witnesses

 

58. In Coy v. Iowa (1988) the Supreme Court overturned Coy’s conviction because

 

1. the one-way screen placed in front of him caused the jury to presume he was guilty.
2. the one-way screen placed in front of him deprived him of his opportunity to confront his accusers.
3. the one-way screen placed in front of him did not allow him his right of cross-examination.
4. all of the above

 

Answer: B                       Reference: Children as Witnesses

 

59. In Maryland v. Craig (1990), the court upheld a Maryland law permitting

 

1.   hearsay testimony from a child witness.
2. placement of a one-way screen in front of the accused.
3. use of a one-way closed-circuit television to present a child’s testimony.
4. use of the cognitive interview when questioning children.

 

Answer: C                       Reference: Children as Witnesses

 

60. Goodman and her colleagues (1998) found that the use of one-way closed-circuit television to present the testimony of a child had which of the following effects?

 

1. The children were viewed as less believable than children who testified in open court.
2. It generally resulted in more accurate testimony.
3. It generally resulted in less accurate testimony.
4.     both A and B

 

Answer: D                       Reference: Children as Witnesses

 

 

 

 

61. According to Chapter 5, which of the following has been used in court in an attempt to lessen a child’s trauma when testifying?

 

1. a one-way screen has been placed in front of the defendant
2. the child has testified on closed-circuit television
3. permit a support person to sit with the child during testimony
4.     all of the above

 

Answer: D                       Reference: Children as Witnesses

 

62. Emotionally-motivated forgetting that is hypothesized to result from traumatic experiences is called

 

1.     repression.
2. natural forgetting.
3. dissociation.
4. confabulation.

 

Answer: A                       Reference: Repressed and Recovered Memories

 

63. An unconscious process in which victims of abuse escape the full impact of an event by psychologically detaching themselves from it is called

 

1. repression.
2. natural forgetting.
3. dissociation.
4. confabulation.

 

Answer: C                       Reference: Repressed and Recovered Memories

 

64. In Linda Williams’ (1994) study, why did women not report sexual abuse experienced as a child?

 

1. They had repressed it.
2. They were so young when it happened; they were not fully aware of the abuse.
3. They were unwilling to share this information with the interviewer.
4.   All of the above

 

Answer: D                       Reference: Repressed and Recovered Memories

 

 

 

 

 

 

65. Twenty-eight year old Stephanie was in a study in which she was asked questions about the abuse she suffered when she was a very young child (this abuse was well documented by medical reports that Stephanie has not seen). Stephanie insists that she did not experience abuse. Which of the following could explain why Stephanie is not reporting this well-documented abuse?

 

1. She repressed memories of the abuse.
2. Stephanie was so young when it happened; she wasn’t fully aware of the abuse.
3. Stephanie does remember the abuse; she doesn’t want to divulge this information to the researcher.
4.   All of the above

 

Answer: D                       Reference: Repressed and Recovered Memories

 

66. Which of the following has not been used by “memory focused” psychotherapists?

 

1. diary writing
2.   sibling report
3. sodium amytal (“truth serum”)
4. hypnosis

 

Answer: B                       Reference: Repressed and Recovered Memories

 

67. The Working Group on Investigation of Memories of Childhood Abuse, appointed by the American Psychological Association,

 

1. had a report written by experimental research psychologists that indicated that suggestive information can degrade memory and false memories are relatively easy to create.
2. had a report written by clinical psychologists that suggested that abuse can lead a child to use dissociative coping strategies and may interfere with the retrieval of memories.
3. could not agree on a final conclusion.
4. all of the above

 

Answer: D                       Reference: Repressed and Recovered Memories

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

68. Loftus and Pickrell (1995) constructed a false story about being lost while shopping at the age of five. They had subjects read this story, and write about what they remembered about the event. What approximate percentage of subjects remembered this event that never happened?

 

1. 10%
2.     25%
3. 50%
4. 75%

 

Answer: B                       Reference: Repressed and Recovered Memories

 

69. Gary Ramona successfully sued

 

1. Cardinal Bernardin for molesting him as a child.
2. the state of California for convicting him of murder based on his daughter’s recovered memories.
3. two therapists for convincing him to confess to a crime he hadn’t committed.
4.     two therapists for implanting false memories of abuse in his daughter.

 

Answer: D                   Reference: Repressed and Recovered Memories

 

True or False Questions

 

1. Those wrongly imprisoned are typically well compensated for the time they spent in prison.

 

Answer: False                  Reference: Examples of Mistaken Eyewitness

Identification

 

2. We tend to underestimate the height of criminals.

 

Answer: False                  Reference: Basic Information Processing

 

3. Viewing photographs of suspects after witnessing a crime can impair an eyewitness’s ability to recognize the perpetrator’s face in a lineup.

 

Answer: True                   Reference: Basic Information Processing

 

4. People with prejudicial attitudes are more likely to experience the other race effect than those without prejudices.

 

Answer:   False                Reference: Variables that Affect Eyewitness Accuracy

 

5. According to research presented in Chapter 5, the appropriate way to conduct a lineup is to have the lineup administrator know which person in the lineup is the suspect.

 

Answer:   False                Reference: Reforming Identification Procedures

 

6. In most states, the decision about whether an expert psychologist can testify is left up to the defense attorney.

 

Answer:   False                Reference: Reforming Identification Procedures

 

7. Children tend to be more accurate when answering specific questions rather than open-ended questions regarding a witnessed event.

 

Answer:   False                Reference: Children as Witnesses

 

8. Most people who suffer severe trauma forget the event.

 

Answer:   False                Reference: Repressed and Recovered Memories

 

9. Simply imaging an event can affect the belief that the event actually occurred.

 

Answer:   True                 Reference: Repressed and Recovered Memories

 

10. Persons who mistake the familiarity of an imagined event with an actual childhood

memory may be experiencing source confusion.

 

Answer:  True                Reference: Repressed and Recovered Memories